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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water-Supply Paper 256 



GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS 
OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA 



BY 



C. W. HALL, 0. E. MEINZER, AND M. L. FULLER 



WORK DONE IN COOPERATION WITH THE MINNESOTA 
STATE BOARD OF HEALTH 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1911 



/ 



DEPARTMENT <>K THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS -Mil'll. DiBBOTOB 



Water -Supply Paper 256 



GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS 
OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA 



BY 



C. W. HALL, 0. E. MEINZER, and M. L. FULLER 



WORK DONE IN COOPERATION WITH THE MINNESOTA 
STATE BOARD OF HEALTH 




WASH ] NGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1 9 I 1 



CA 



4 



1/ 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

[ntroduction 23 

Area investigated 23 

Purpose and scope of the investigation L':i 

importance and character of the work done •_':; 

Available sources of water l' I 

Artesian prospects 25 

Mineral character of the water 25 

Sanitary conditions 25 

Pul >1 ic supplies 25 

Construction of wells 25 

Bistory of the investigation 26 

Physiography, by C. W. Hall ami < >. E. Meinzer 26 

< reneral statement 26" 

< reneral contour of the upland surface 26 

Minor irregularities of the upland surface 28 

Features of erosion 28 

Relation of drainage in upland contour 30 

( reologic history, !>><>. K. Meinzer :; I 

General outline 32 

Pre- Paleozoic time 32 

Paleozoic "periods of sedimental ion :;:; 

I're-( Cretaceous era of erosion 34 

( Iretaceous period of sedimentation :'."> 

Post-Cretaceous lime 36 

Geologic formations and their water-bearing capacity, by ('. \Y. Hall 37 

Surface deposits :'.7 

Definition 37 

Glacial drift 38 

( tut wash and terrace deposits 40 

Recenl alluvium 11 

Loess 41 

Dune sand II 

Cretaceous system 42 

Paleozoic rocks 42 

Devonian system 42 

< rrdovician system 43 

Afaquoketa .-hale i I 

Galena limestone (3 

I (ecorah -hale 1 1 

Platte ville limestone 44 

si. Peter sandstone M 

Prairie du < ihien group H5 

Shakopee dolomite i"> 

New Richmond sandstone ' > 

Oneota dolomite 46 



4 CONTENTS. 

Geologic formations and their water-bearing capacity, by C. W. Hall — Cont'd. 

Paleozoic rocks — Continued. Page. 

Cambrian system 47 

Jordan sandstone 47 

St. Lawrence formation 47 

. Dresba'ch sandstone and underlying shales 47 

Algonkian system (?) 48 

Red clastic series 48 

Algonkian system 49 

Sioux quartzite 49 

Archean system 49 

Artesian conditions, by O. E. Meinzer 50 

Introduction • 50 

Glacial drift 50 

Conditions 50 

Practical applications 53 

Cretaceous system 54 

Paleozoic rocks 56 

Sioux quartzite and glacial drift 57 

Mineral quality of the underground waters, by O. E. Meinzer 57 

Sources of the data 57 

Interpretation of the analyses 58 

Soap-consuming power 59 

Formation of scale 59 

Foaming 60 

Corrosion 60 

Surface deposits 61 

Alluvium and drift waters compared , 61 

Decrease in mineralization from west to east 61 

Analyses considered according to provinces 63 

Variations with depth 65 

Chlorine content 65 

Content of iron and fixed nitrogen 67 

Cretaceous formations 68 

Two groups of water 68 

Geographic and stratigraphic relations of the two groups 71 

Archean-Cretaceous contact zone 73 

Paleozoic formations 74 

Sioux quartzite 75 

Summary 76 

Problems relating to wells, by M. L. Fuller and O. E. Meinzer 78 

Types of wells 78 

In the surface deposits 78 

In the Cretaceous 80 

In the Paleozoic 81 

In the Sioux quartzite 81 

In the Archean 82 

Finishing wells in sand 82 

The problem 82 

Chemistry of the incrusting process 83 

Remedies 85 

A well of large diameter and open eind 85 



CONTENTS. 5 

Problems relating to wells, by M. L. Puller and <>. K. Meinzer Continued. 

Finishing wells in sand -Continued. Page. 

A well oi huge diameter finished with a Bcreen 85 

Finding a coarse layer 86 

Driving the casing to the proper depth 86 

Developing a natural screen 86 

Making an artificial gravel screen 86 

An independent pump 87 

Removing the screen frequently 87 

Summary 87 

Drilling in quartzite 87 

Phenomena due to variations in atmospheric pressure 88 

Fluctuation of head 88 

Variations in the yield of flowing wells 89 

Roiliness of the water during Btorme 89 

' ' Blowing " and ' ' breathing " wells 90 

Freezing of wells 91 

Drainage by wells 92 

The problem 92 

Necessary conditions 92 

Removal of debris and sediment from the water 93 

Extent of areas that can be reclaimed 93 

Hydraulic rams 94 

Scientific prospecting for water 95 

Public water supplies, by O. E. Meinzer 95 

General statement and table 97 

Cities and villages equipped with public waterworks Ill 

Uses of public waterworks 114 

Sources of supply 116 

Quantity L16 

Quality. " 116 

Cost '. 117 

Surface sources 117 

Underground sources 117 

Data for southern Minnesota 119 

Methods of lifting water 120 

Power 121 

Storage and distribution 121 

Consumption of water 123 

Price charged 124 

The sanitary problem L26 

Descriptions, by counties L28 

Anoka County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller L28 

Surface features L28 

Surface deposits 128 

Rock formations 129 

Underground water conditions ISO 

Yield of water L30 

Head of the water LSI 

Quality of the water LSI 

Summary and analyses 131 

Bigstone County, by 0. E. Meinzer 132 

Surface features 132 



6 CONTENTS. 

Bigstone County — Continued. Page. 

Surface deposits 132 

Description 132 

Yield of water 133 

Head of the water 1 33 

Quality of the water r 133 

Cretaceous system 133 

Description 133 

Yield of water 134 

Head of the water 1 34 

Quality of the water 134 

Archean rocks 1 34 

. Water supplies for cities and villages 135 

Ortonville 135 

Graceville 135 

Beardsley 135 

Clinton 135 

Farm water supplies 136 

Summary and analyses 136 

Blue Earth County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 138 

Surface features 138 

Surface deposits 138 

Cretaceous deposits (?) 139 

Paleozoic formations 139 

Well records '. 140 

Flowing wells 141 

Water supplies for cities and villages 141 

Mankato 141 

Lake Crystal 142 

Mapleton 142 

Good Thunder 142 

Amboy 142 

Vernon Center 142 

Summary and analyses 142 

Brown County, by O. E. Meinzer 143 

Surface f eatures 143 

Surface deposits 144 

Description 144 

Yield, head, and quality of the water 144 

Cretaceous deposits 144 

Description 144 

Yield of water 145 

Head of the water 145 

Quality of the water 145 

Paleozoic formations 145 

Sioux quartzite 146 

Archean rocks 146 

Water supplies for cities and villages 146 

New Ulm 146 

Sleepy Eye 147 

Springfield .... 147 

Comf rev. ..„._.„..., 147 



COX IK. \ I 3. 7 

Brown I tounty — Continued. 

Farm wain- Buppliea 117 

Summary and analyses L48 

Carver County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 1 19 

Surface features L49 

Surface deposits 149 

Rock formations 149 

Eead of the water -. . . L50 

Table of analyses r. I 

Chippewa County, by 0. E. Meinzer L51 

Surface features L51 

Surface deposits 152 

I '.-'lip! inn 152 

5field of water L52 

Eead of the water L52 

Quality of the water 152 

Cretaceous deposits 152 

Archean rocks L53 

Water supplies for cities and villages L53 

Montevideo L53 

Milan 1 -~»:i 

Maynard : L54 

Farm water supplies 154 

Summary and analyses 154 

Cottonwood County, by 0. E. Meinzer L55 

Surface features 1 55 

Surface d< posits .' 155 

Description L55 

Yield of water L56 

Eead of the water 156 

Quality of the water L56 

Cretaceous system 156 

Description L56 

yield of water 157 

Eead of the water r>7 

Quality of the water I">7 

Sioux quartzite 158 

Description L58 

Yield of water L58 

Quality of the water L59 

Water supplies for cities and villages L59 

Windom L59 

Mountain Lake 159 

Westbrook L60 

Farm water supplies 160 

Summary and analyses L6] 

Dakota County, by C W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 162 

Surface features 162 

Surface deposits 163 

Rock formations 164 

Well records [66 

Water sup] i lie- for cities and villages L67 

Hastings 167 



8 CONTENTS. 

Dakota County— Continued. Page. 
Water supplies for cities and villages — Continued. 

South St. Paul ._ 167 

Mendota 168 

Summary and analyses 168 

Dodge County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 169 

Surface features 169 

Surface deposits 170 

Paleozoic formations 170 

Water supplies for cities and villages 171 

Kasson 171 

West Concord 171 

Hayfield 172 

Summary and analyses 172 

Faribault County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 173 

Surface features 173 

Surface deposits 173 

Paleozoic formations 173 

Well records 174 

Underground water conditions 175 

Wells 175 

Hpad of the water 175 

Water supplies for cities and villages 176 

Blue Earth 176 

Wells 176 

Winnebago 177 

Elmore 177 

Bricelyn 177 

Easton 177 

Delavan 178 

Kiester 178 

Minnesota Lake 178 

Summary and analyses 178 

Fillmore County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 179 

Surface features 179 

Surface deposits 179 

Paleozoic formations 180 

Underground water conditions 181 

Head of the water 181 

Quality of the water 182 

Wells : 182 

Springs ■ 182 

Water supplies for cities and villages 182 

Lanesboro 182 

Spring Valley 183 

Preston 183 

Rushford 183 

Chatfield 183 

Harmony 183 

Wykoff 183 

Fountain 184 

Mabel '... 184 

Canton 184 

Summary and analyses 185 



CONTENTS. 9 

Paga 

Freeborn County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller L86 

Surface features 186 

Surface deposits 186 

Cretaceous deposits (?) 186 

Paleozoic formations 187 

Underground water condit ions 188 

Wells 188 

Plowing areas 188 

Springs 188 

Water supplies for cities and villages 189 

Albert Lea 189 

Alden 189 

Hartland 189 

Emmons 189 

Summary and analyses 189 

Goodhue County, by C. \Y. Hall and M. L. Fuller 190 

Surface features 190 

Surface deposits 190 

Rock formations 191 

Underground water conditions 193 

Head of the water 193 

Quality of the water 193 

Springs 1 93 

Water supplies for cities and villages 194 

Red Wing 194 

( 'annon Falls 196 

Kenyon 196 

Zumbrota 196 

Pine Island 196 

Goodhue 190 

Summary and analyses 196 

Hennepin County, by C. W. Hall 198 

Surface features 198 

Surface deposits -. 198 

Rock formations 199 

Sources of water 201 

Lakes 201 

Streams 201 

Springs 201 

The glacial drift 202 

The sandstones 202 

Head of the water 202 

Quality of the water 202 

Minneapolis public BUpply 203 

Houston County, by C. W. Hall and M. I.. Puller 204 

Surface features 204 

Surface deposits 204 

Hoik format ions 206 

Underground water conditions 207 

Sead Of tin- water 207 

Quality of the water 207 

Springs 208 



10 CONTENTS. 

Houston County — Continued. Page. 

Water supply for cities and villages 208 

Caledonia 208 

Houston 209 

Spring Grove 209 

Hokah 209 

Summary and analyses 209 

Jackson County, by O. E. Meinzer 210 

Surface features 210 

Surface deposits - 211 

Description 211 

Yield of water 211 

Head of the water 211 

Quality of the water 212 

Cretaceous system 212 

Description 212 

Yield of water •, 212 

Head of the water 212 

Quality of the water 213 

Paleozoic formations 213 

Sioux quartzite 213 

Water supplies for cities and villages 214 

Jackson 214 

Lakefield 214 

Heron Lake 215 

Alpha , 215 

Farm water supplies 215 

Summary and analyses 216 

Kandiyohi County, by O. E. Meinzer 217 

Surface features 217 

Surface deposits 217 

Description 217 

Yield of water 218 

Head of the water 218 

Quality of the water 218 

Cretaceous system 219 

Archean rocks 219 

Water supplies for cities and villages 219 

Willmar 219 

Atwater 220 

New London 220 

Farm water supplies 220 

Summary and analyses 221 

Lac qui Parle County, by O. E. Meinzer 221 

Surface features =. 221 

Surface deposits 222 

Description 222 

Yield, head, and quality of the water 222 

Cretaceous system 223 

Description 223 

Yield of water 223 

Head of the water 223 

Quality of the water 224 



C0NTE1 11 

Lac qui Parle County — Continued. 

Archean rocks l'-I 

AWi 1 1 r supplies for cities and villages 225 

Madison 225 

I >a sm m 225 

1 1< ryd 225 

Bellingham 226 

Farm water supplies 226 

Summary 226 

Leaueur County, by C. W. Ball and M. I.. Fuller 227 

Surface features 228 

Surface deposits 228 

Paleozoic formations 228 

Underground water conditions 229 

Wells 229 

Bead 6f the water 230 

Springs 230 

Wuicr supplies for cities and villages !':'.() 

Lesueur 230 

Waterville 231 

Montgomery 231 

Lesueur Center 231 

Elysian 231 

Kilkenny LMI 

Summary and analyses 231 

Lincoln < lounty, l>y < >. E. Meinzer 232 

Surface features 232 

Surface deposits 233 

Description 233 

Yield of water 236 

Bead of the water 236 

Quality of the water 236 

Underlying formations 237 

Description 

Yield, head, and quality of the water 237 

Water supplies for cities and villages 237 

Lake I lent ni i 237 

Tyler 238 

[vanhoe 238 

Bendricks 238 

Farm water supplies 

Summary and analyses 239 

Lyon County, by 0. E. Meinzer 240 

Surface teat ure- 240 

Surface deposits 2 in 

Description l' lo 

Yield of water l' II 

Bead of the water 241 

Quality of the water 241 

Cretaceous system 24] 

Description 241 

Yield of water 242 

B< id Of the water 24 | 



12 CONTENTS. 

Lyon County — Continued. Page. 
Cretaceous system — Continued. 

Quality of the water '. 246 

Shallow zones , 247 

Intermediate zones 247 

Deep zones 247 

Paleozoic and Algonkian rocks 248 

Archean rocks 248 

Water supplies for cities and villages 248 

Marshall 248 

Tracy 249 

Minneota 249 

Cottonwood 249 

Balaton 250 

Farm water supplies , 250 

Summary and analyses 250 

McLeod County, by O. E. Meinzer 252 

Surface features 252 

Surface deposits 252 

Description 252 

Yield of water 252 

Head of the water 253 

Quality of the water 254 

Formations beneath the glacial drift .- 254 

Description 254 

Yield of water 255 

Head of the water 255 

Quality of the water 255 

Water supplies for cities and villages 255 

Hutchinson 255 

Glencoe 256 

Brownton 256 

Stewart. 256 

Lester Prairie 256 

Silver Lake 257 

Winsted - 257 

Farm water supplies 257 

Summary and analyses 257 

Martin County, by 0. E. Meinzer 258 

Surface features 258 

Surface deposits 259 

Description 259 

Yield of water : 259 

Head of the water 259 

Quality of the water 261 

Underlying formations 261 

Description 261 

Yield, head, and quality of the water 262 

Water supplies for cities and villages 263 

Fairmont 263 

Sherburn 263 

Welcome 264 

Ceylon 264 

Truman 264 



CONTENTS. 13 

Martin County — Continued. Page. 

Farm water supplies 264 

Summary and analyses 265 

Meeker County, l>y O. E. Meinzer 266 

Surface features *. 266 

Surface deposits 266 

Description 2GG 

Yield of water 2GG 

Head of the water 266 

Quality of the water 2G7 

Formations beneath the glacial drift 267 

Description 2G7 

Yield, head, and quality of the water 2G8 

Water supplies for cities and villages 268 

Litchfield 2G8 

Dassel 269 

Eden Valley 269 

Grove City 269 

Farm water supplies 270 

Summary 270 

Mower County, by C. W. Hall and M . L. Fuller 271 

Surface features 271 

Surface deposits 271 

Paleozoic formations 272 

Underground water conditions 273 

Wells 273 

Head of the water 273 

Water supplies for cities and villages 273 

Austin 273 

Adams 273 

Grand Meadow 274 

Le Roy 274 

Rose Creek 274 

Lyle 274 

Summary and analyses 274 

Murray < 'ounty, by O. E. Meinzer 275 

Surface features 275 

Surface deposits 275 

Description 275 

Yield of water 276 

Head of the water 276 

Quality of the water 277 

Cretaceous system 277 

Sioux quart /.it e 277 

Water supplies for cities and villages ■ 278 

Slayton 278 

Fulda 27s 

Currie 27s 

[ona 27!) 

A voca 27!) 

I arm water BUppliefi 27!) 

Summary and analyses 27!) 



14 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Nicollet County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 280 

Surface features 280 

Surface deposits 280 

Alluvium 280 

Terrace gravels 280 

Glacial drift 281 

Cretaceous system 281 

Paleozoic formations '. 281 

Well records - 282 

Algonkian rocks 282 

Archean rocks 283 

Water supplies for cities and villages 283 

St. Peter 283 

Nicollet 283 

Summary 283 

Nobles County, by O. E. Meinzer 283 

Surface features 283 

Surface deposits , '. 284 

Description 284 

Yield of water : 284 

Head of the water 284- 

Quality of the water 285 

Cretaceous system 285 

Description 285 

Yield of water 287 

Head of the water 287 

Quality of the water 287 

Sioux nuartzite 288 

Water supplies for cities and villages . 288 

Worthington 288 

Adrian 289 

Ellsworth '. 289 

Wilmont 289 

Farm water supplies 289 

Summary and analyses 289 

Olmsted County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 290 

Surface features 290 

Surface deposits. .-.' 291 

Faleozoic formations 291 

Underground water conditions 293 

Wells 293 

Head of the water 293 

Water supplies for cities and villages 293 

Rochester 293 

Stewartville 293 

Eyota 293 

Summary and analyses 294 

Pipestone County, by O. E. Meinzer 294 

Surface features 294 

Surface deposits 295 

Description 295 

Yield of water 295 

Head of the water 295 

Quality of the water 295 



CONTENTS. 15 

Pipestone County— Continued. 

Cretaceous system 295 

Sinux. quartzite 295 

Description 295 

Yield of water 296 

Bead of the water 

Quality of the water 297 

Water supplies for cities and villages 297 

Pipestone 297 

Jasper 298 

srton 298 

Ruthton 298 

Farm water supplies 299 

Summary and analyses 299 

Ramsey County, by C. W. Ball and M. I.. Fuller 300 

Surface features 300 

Surface deposits 301 

Paleozoic formations 302 

Underground water condil ions 303 

Bead of the water 303 

Quality of the water 303 

St. Paul public Bupply 304 

Summary 304 

Redwood < iounty, by < ». E. Meinzer *304 

Surface features 304 

Surface deposits 305 

Description 305 

Yield of water 305 

Bead of the water 305 

Quality of the water 306 

Cretaceous system 306 

I >e& -i-i | • t ion 306 

Yield of water 307 

Bead of the water 307 

Quality of the water 308 

Sioux quartzite 308 

A rein -a n rocks 30S 

Archean proper 308 

White clay 309 

Water supplies for cil ies and villages 311 

Redwood Falls 311 

Lamberton 311 

Walnut Grove 3li* 

Sanborn ••!- 

Farm water supplies 312 

Su miliary and analyses 313 

Renville County, l>y < >. E. Meinzer 31 i 

Surface features 314 

Surface deposits 314 

Description 314 

Yield of water 314 

Bead of the water 315 

Quality of the water 315 



16 CONTENTS. 

Renville County — Continued. Page. 

Cretaceous and Archean formations 316 

Description 316 

Yield of water 319 

Quality of the water 319 

Water supplies for cities and villages 319 

Renville 319 

Olivia 320 

Bird Island 320 

Fairfax 321 

Hector 321 

Morton 322 

Sacred Heart 322 

Franklin 322 

Buffalo Lake 322 

Farm water supplies : 323 

Summary and analyses 323 

Rice County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 324 

Surface features 324 

Surface deposits 325 

Paleozoic formations 326 

Underground water conditions 327 

Wells 327 

Head of the water 327 

Water supplies for cities and villages 327 

Faribault 327 

Northfield 328 

Lonsdale 329 

Summary and analyses 329 

Rock County, by O. E. Meinzer 330 

Surface features 330 

Surface deposits 330 

Description 330 

Yield of water 330 

Head of the water 331 

Quality of the water 331 

Cretaceous system 331 

Sioux quartzite 332 

Description 332 

Yield of water 333 

Head of the water 333 

Quality of the water 333 

Water supplies for cities and villages 334 

Luverne 334 

Hardwick 334 

Farm water supplies 334 

Summary and analyses 335 

Scott County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 336 

Surface features 336 

Surface deposits 337 

Paleozoic formations 337 

Underground water conditions 339 

Wells 339 

Head of the water 340 

Springs 340 



CONTEN CS. 17 

Scott County — Continued. Page. 

Water supplies for cities and villages 340 

New Prague 340 

Belle Plaine 340 

Shakopee 340 

Jordan 340 

Merriam Junction 3 II 

.Summary and analyses :; 1 1 

Sibley County, by C. W. Hall and M. I.. Fuller :;il 

Surface features 341 

Surface deposits 342 

Rock formations 343 

Underground water conditions 345 

Yield of water 345 

Head of the water 345 

Water supplies for cities and villages 345 

Winthrop 345 

Henderson 345 

Gibbon 345 

Summary 34(i 

Steele County, by C. W. Hall and M. 1.. Fuller 346 

Surface features 346 

Surface deposits 346 

Paleozoic formations 347 

Underground water conditions 348 

Wells :; IS 

Bead of the water 348 

Water supplies for cities and villages 348 

Owatonna :'. IS 

Blooming Trairie 349 

Ellendale _. 349 

Summary and analyses 349 

Swift County, by < ). E. Meinzer 350 

Surface features 350 

Surface deposits 350 

Description 350 

Yield of water :',.">0 

Head of the water 351 

Quality of the water 351 

( Iretaceous system 351 

Description 35 1 

Yield of water 352 

Quality of the water 352 

An hea ii rocks 

Water supplies for cil iee and \ illages 

Fen -oi i 

Appleton 353 

Farm water supplies 

Summary and analyses :'"">i 

Wabasha County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 

Surface features... 

Surface deposits 

60920°— whp 256—11 2 



18 CONTENTS. 

Wabasha County — Continued. Page. 

Rock formations 356 

Underground water conditions 358 

Wells 358 

Head of the water 358 

Springs 358 

Quality of the water 359 

Water supplies for cities and villages r 359 

Wabasha 359 

Lake City . 359 

Plainview 359 

Elgin 359 

Mazeppa 359 

Waseca County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 360 

Surface features 360 

Surface deposits 360 

Paleozoic formations 361 

Underground water conditions 362 

Wells 362 

Head of the water 362 

Quality of the water 362 

Water supplies for cities and villages 362 

Waseca 362 

New Richland 362 

Summary and analyses 362 

Washington County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 363 

Surface features 363 

Surface deposits 364 

Rock formations 364 

Underground water conditions. 366 

Head of the water 366 

Springs 367 

Water supply at Stillwater 367 

Summary and analyses 367 

Watonwan County, by 0. E. Meinzer 368 

Surface features 368 

Surface deposits 368 

Description 368 

Yield of water 368 

Head of the water 369 

Quality of the water 369 

Underlying formations 369 

Description '. 369 

Yield of water 370 

Head of the water 371 

Quality of the water 371 

Water supplies for cities and villages 371 

St. James 371 

Madelia 372 

Farm water supplies 372 

Summary and analyses 372 



CONTENTS. 19 



Winona County, by C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller 374 

Surface features 374 

Surface deposits 374 

Bock formations 375 

Underground water conditions 377 

Head of the water 377 

Quality of the water 377 

Springs .- 377 

Water supplies for cities and villages 377 

Winona 377 

St. Charles 378 

Lewiston and Utica 378 

Rolling Stone 378 

Summary and analyses 378 

Wright County, by 0. E. Meinzer r 380 

Surface features 380 

Surface deposits 380 

Description 380 

Yield of water 380 

Head of the water 381 

Quality of the water 381 

Cretaceous rocks (?) * 381 

Paleozoic and older formations 382 

Description 382 

Yield of water 383 

Head of the water 383 

Quality of the water 384 

Water supplies for cities and villages 384 

Buffalo 384 

Delano 384 

Monticello 384 

Howard Lake 385 

Cokato • 385 

Waverly 386 

Farm water supplies 386 

Summary and analyses 386 

Yellow Medicine County, by O. E. Meinzer 387 

Surface features 387 

Surface deposits 388 

Description 388 

Yield of water 388 

Head of the water 388 

Quality of the water 389 

Cretaceous system 389 

Description 389 

Yield of water 389 

Head of the water 389 

Quality of the water 389 

Archean rocks 390 

Description 390 

Yield of water. -. 390 



20 CONTENTS. 

Yellow Medicine County — Continued. Page. 

Water supplies for cities and villages -. 391 

Granite Falls 391 

Canby .- 391 

Clarkfield 391 

Echo 392 

Wood Lake 392 

Hanley Falls 392 

Farm water supplies 392 

Summary and analyses 393 

Index 395 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



/ Page. 

Plate I. Topographic map of southern Minnesota In pocket. 

Hi Map showing thickness of surface deposits in southern Min- 

/ nesota In pocket. 

III. Map showing occurrence of granitic rocks and Sioux quartzite in 

southwestern Minnesota In pocket. 

IV.' Map showing underground water conditions in southern 

/ Minnesota In pocket. 

V. Section sheet showing geologic structure and quality of under- 

/ ground water in southern Minnesota 34 

VI. /General geologic section of southern Minnesota 36 

VI I ^Geologic sections in northern Bigstone County 134 

VIII: Geologic sections in Brown County 144 

IX/Geologic sections in southern Cottonwood and northern Jackson 

/ counties 156 

X. Analyses of Minneapolis waters arranged and averaged according to 

/ rock formations 202 

XI. Geologic sections in Lac qui Parle County 222 

XI I. ^Geologic sections in Lyon and western Yellow Medicine counties.. 244 

XIII. Geologic sections in southern Murray and northern Nobles counties. . 276 
XIV." Analyses of St. Paul waters arranged and averaged according to rock 

/ formations 304 

XV. Geologic sections in Renville County 320 

XVI. Geologic sections in Watonwan and southeastern Brown counties.. 370 

XVI I ! Geologic sections at Elk River 384 

XVIII." Geologic sections in eastern Yellow Medicine County 390 

Figure 1. Map showing area included in the report, and location of sections 

given in Plate V 24 

2. Diagrammatic section across southern Minnesota 32 

3. Diagrammatic section of the Cretaceous showing (1) the conditions 

that limit the flowing area, and (2) the supposed relations of hard 

and soft waters 55 

4. Ideal section showing the structure which gives rise to flowing wells 

near the margins of quartzite plateaus 57 

5. Diagram showing the relations of hard and soft Cretaceous waters. . 71 

6. Diagram showing the two most common types of deep-well pumps.. 79 

7 . Diagram showing two methods of drilling ' ' tubular " wells 80 

8. Diagram showing the deflection of the drill in Sioux quartzite 88 

9. Diagram showing the principle of the air lift 120 

21 



GEOLOGY AND UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN 

MINNESOTA. 



By C. W. Hall, O. E. Meinzer, and M. L. Fuller. 



INTRODUCTION. 

AREA INVESTIGATED. 

The region described in the present report includes approximately 
the southern two-fifths of the State of Minnesota and has an area 
of 28,265 square miles (fig. 1). Aside from the area occupied by the 
cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, this is essentially an agricultural 
region. According to the census of 1905 it is inhabited by 1,295,850 
persons, of whom 519,750 live on farms, 317,100 live in villages and 
small cities, whose existence depends on the agriculture of the region 
in which they are situated, and 458,800 live in Minneapolis and St. 
Paul, whose commercial importance depends upon an area reaching 
far beyond the limits of the district considered. Though southern 
Minnesota has passed the pioneer stage of agricultural development, 
there is yet in store for it great industrial progress and an accom- 
panying increase in population. 

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OE THE INVESTIGATION. 

Importance and character of the work done. — Although this is a 
region of abundant precipitation and contains a large store of both 
surface and underground water, yet the economic and sanitary 
problems connected with its water supplies are numerous and im- 
portant. Their importance is great if only the present develop- 
ment is considered; it is vastly greater if consideration is had of the 
inevitable future increase of urban population and the multiplica- 
tion of industrial requirements. 

The purpose of the present investigation has been to determine to 
the fullest practicable extent the principal facts in regard to the 
underground waters — their quantity, head, mineral quality, sani- 
tary conditions, and their depths beneath the surface — as well as 
the best methods of drilling to them and finishing wells for their 
utilization and to consider all other questions relating to their recov- 
ery for human use. Furthermore, to make the investigation of the 
greatest practical service, the results have been applied as definitely 
as possible to particular localities, much emphasis having for this 

reason been placed on the countv reports. 

23 



24 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



The principal problems involved in the investigation are sum- 
marized below. 

Available sources of water. — In any given locality, what water- 
bearing formations occur, at what depths do they lie, and how much 




Figure 1. — Map showing area considered and location of sections on Plate V. 

will they yield ? As a result of lack of knowledge on these questions, 
on the one hand, communities have been content to rely on unsatis- 
factory supplies obtained near the surface, though better water may 
be had at greater depths, and, on the other hand, expensive drilling 



INTBODTJCTION. 25 

has been continued long after the lowest water horizon has been passed. 
By assembling all available data obtained from outcrops and well 
records it has become possible in large measure to answer these ques- 
tions for each locality, and for places for which the data at hand are 
not sufficient to warrant positive statements the probabilities can 
at least be presented in order to give a reasonable basis for intelligent 
action. 

Artesian prospects.— A question in which nearly all communities 
are interested is whether flowing wells can be obtained by drilling to 
the deeper horizons. Much blind optimism prevails in regard to this 
subject. Many communities have at one time or another borne 
the loss of expensive drilling at places where there was no real 
prospect of obtaining flows, and other communities are likely 
to suffer in the same way unless they are properly informed. In 
making this investigation it has been found that the deep wells 
already drilled give ample data for determining definitely for most 
communities whether or not there is any prospect of obtaining flow- 
ing wells. It is by no means necessary that every village or city 
should drill a deep well in order to learn whether flows can be obtained. 
Even where there are no prospects for flowing wells, the question of 
head is important. If the water rises higher from the deeper than 
from the shallower beds, it is important that the community should 
know it. 

Mineral character of the water. — The underground waters of south- 
ern Minnesota differ widely in their mineral content. Even in the 
same locality waters obtained from different horizons may be radi- 
cally different. As the mineral character of any water is highly 
important and determines to a great extent its value for domestic 
and industrial uses, this subject has here been fully considered, and 
the results of many analyses of Minnesota waters have been pre ented. 

Sanitary conditions. — That there is an important relation between 
the character of the water supply of a community and its health is 
a fact now well recognized. Accordingly, in the present survey, the 
sanitary quality of the water supplies of nearly all the villages and 
cities in southern Minnesota was carefully examined. 

Public supplies. — The problems connected with the source, lifting, 
storage, and distribution of public supplies are numerous, and, 
because of the several variable factors involved, they are not pre- 
cisely the same for any two communities. Many serious mistakes 
are made in connection with the public supplies of villages and small 
cities, and it is hoped that the presentation of facts and the discus- 
sion of conditions in southern Minnesota will be of general value. 

Construction of wells. — The drillers and the people of the area in- 
vestigated are at present contending with a number of vexatious 



26 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

problems, partly mechanical and partly geologic in character, per- 
tainino; to the successful construction of wells. A discussion of 
these problems is presented in this report. 

HISTORY OF THE INVESTIGATION. 

The underground water survey upon which this report is based 
has been conducted under the general supervision of Prof. C. W. 
Hall, of the University of Minnesota. The field work for the eastern 
part of the area was done in 1906 by M. L. Fuller, who was assisted 
by F. G. Clapp and H. S. Spaulding; that for the western part was 
done in 1907 by O. E. Meinzer, who was assisted by E. B. Tourtellot. 
The investigations in 1907 were made in cooperation with the Min- 
nesota state board of health, which has already rendered to the State 
much admirable service in connection with the sanitation of the 
public water supplies. In general, Professor Hall and Mr. Fuller are 
responsible for the maps and sections of the eastern part and Mr. 
Meinzer for those of the western part. The authorities for most of 
the well sections are given in connection with the sections, but the 
correlations were made by the authors unless otherwise stated. 

In the preparation of this report the authors are indebted to many 
persons for assistance, suggestions, and criticisms, but especially to 
Mr. H. A. Whittaker and Mr. A. W. Johnston. Mr. Whittaker has 
given valuable aid in connection with the presentation of anal} T ses 
of the waters; Mr. Johnston has done much good work on the maps 
and sections of the eastern area. Further acknowledgments are 
made in the chapters on the mineral quality of the underground 
water and on public water supplies. 

PHYSIO GRAPHY. 

By C. W. Hall and O. E. Meinzer. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

Southern Minnesota as a whole is a low plateau which, generally 
speaking, is just starting a new cycle of denudation. In describing 
the topography it will be convenient to discuss, first, the general con- 
tour of the upland surface; second, the minor irregularities of this 
surface; and, third, the erosion features of the new cycle, the dissec- 
tion of the plateau that has thus far been accomplished by the 
streams which are to-day vigorously gnawing into it at a thousand 
points. 

GENERAL CONTOUR OF THE UPLAND SURFACE. 

A glance at the topographic map (PI. I) will show that the plateau 
surface of southern Minnesota lies at two distinctly different levels. 
The southwestern portion, forming only a small part of the total 
area, stands fully 500 feet above the adjacent upland plain and the 



PHYSIOGKAPHY. 27 

transition from the one level to the other, although gradual, is rela- 
tively well defined, especially toward the northwest. This higher 
plateau, extending from Minnesota far into the Dakotas, has long 
been known as the "Coteau des Prairies." 

The upland surface of the area, exclusive of the coteau, exhibits a 
few large flexures, which are extremely gentle but which influence 
profoundly its topography and underground water and have great 
significance in the interpretation of its geologic history. Its highest 
portion, in the southeastern part of the State, forms a flat dome 
culminating at an elevation of about 1,400 feet above sea level in 
Mower County, whence it declines very gradually in all directions. 
Toward the east it slopes downward to the cliffs of the Mississippi, 
the tops of which have' an elevation of about 1,200 feet above sea 
level. Toward the west it slopes to the valley of Blue Earth River, 
which stands about 1,100 feet above sea level, beyond which it rises 
gently in the direction of the coteau. Toward the north it slopes 
to the northeast corner of the area under consideration, where the 
plateau is lowest, its altitude there scarcely exceeding 900 feet. 

Taking a different viewpoint, it will be seen that the Minnesota 
Valley, from Bigstone Lake to the great bend at Mankato, occupies 
essentially the axis of a trough in the western portion of the plateau. 
That is, from the crest of the uplands bordering the valley, where the 
average altitude is 1,050 feet, the surface rises gently in either direc- 
tion, reaching an elevation of about 1,200 feet at the foot of the 
coteau on the one side and at the north-central margin of the area 
on the other. Although the average upland altitude along this 
stretch of the Minnesota Valley is about 1,050 feet, the axis of the 
trough itself slopes downward from Bigstone Lake, where it is only 
slightly less than 1,100 feet above sea level, to Mankato, where it is 
somewhat below 1,000 feet. This slope is shown by the contour 
lines on the topographic map, the 1,100-foot contours diverging from 
Bigstone Lake southeastward, and the 1,000-foot contours diverg- 
ing from Minnesota River to Mankato. 

In the same sense the valley of Blue Earth River occupies the axis 
of a trough between the coteau on the west and the Mower County 
dome on the east. This axis has a north-south trend and declines 
from somewhat less than 1,200 feet above sea level at the state line 
to less than 1,000 feet at Mankato, where it converges with the axis 
first described. A third trough has an axis extending from the con- 
vergence of the other two at Mankato to the low district comprising 
the northeastern part of the area. 

In other words, the upland surface of southern Minnesota culmi- 
nates in three elevated regions. The most prominent is the coteau, 
occupying the southwestern part of the State; a much lower one 
is the dome in the southeastern part; and a still lower and less 



28 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

conspicuous one lies near the center of the northern boundary of the 
area here considered. Between these three elevations there are three 
troughlike depressions whose axes slope away from the highest eleva- 
tion in the southwest toward the lowest depression in the northeast. 

MINOR IRREGULARITIES OF THE UPLAND SURFACE. 

All but the southeastern corner and perhaps the extreme south- 
western corner of the region is covered with glacial drift deposited 
during the most recent ice invasion, and hence the upland topogra- 
phy is essentially that produced by glaciation. Nowhere is there a 
more typical example of ground moraine left in the wake of a conti- 
nental ice sheet than is exhibited by the extensive, slightly undulat- 
ing, monotonous expanses of southern Minnesota, dotted with count- 
less shallow lakes and ponds and covered with an interminable 
network of swamps. This ground moraine gives to the region its 
characteristic topography, but it is interrupted at intervals by belts 
of terminal or recessional moraine, which have a surface that is 
equally poorly drained but much more irregular and hummocky, and 
that stands conspicuously above the surrounding ground moraine 
(PL II). 

The topography includes several other groups of modifying fea- 
tures, among them (1) flat areas that once lay at the bottom of 
extensive glacial lakes; (2) sharp ridges of quartzite which, in a few 
localities in the southwest, project abruptly above the smooth sur- 
face of the drift beneath which they are nearly buried; (3) outliers 
of resistant, horizontally bedded limestones, forming low mounds or 
mesas in the southeast, where the drift is thin or absent; (4) depres- 
sions due to sink holes where the limestone is near the surface; (5) 
sand dunes; and (6) areas in the southeast quarter in which the 
topographic rugosities have been covered over by a smooth, thin 
veneer of wind-driven loess. 

FEATURES OF EROSION. 

A glance at the topographic map will give a general idea of the 
amount of stream erosion in this area. One deep broad gorge — the 
valley of Minnesota River — has been cut through the heart of the 
area; another much deeper gorge — the valley of Mississippi River — 
forms its eastern boundary. The gorge of the Minnesota is not at 
many places cut more than 200 feet below the upland level; the gorge 
of the Mississippi locally reaches a depth of 500 feet. 

The southeastern part of the region is much more thoroughly dis- 
sected than the rest, and the difference is so great that the region 
can be divided into two distinct physiographic provinces. The 
southeastern province, adjacent to the Mississippi and approxi- 
mately 500 feet above it, is traversed by an intricate drainage system 



PHYSIOGRAPHY. 29 

which has cut innumerable steep, rugged valleys and ravines several 
hundred feet into the hard rocks, in some localities leaving only 
remnants of the plateau surface. Here there are no lakes or swamps, 
for the drainage is good. A thousand steep-graded ravines conduct 
rain water to the Mississippi. The erosion features are conspicuous, 
for the present cycle of denudation is well under way and has nearly 
reached the stage when the denuding processes shall have attained 
their maximum activity. 

The other province, which includes much the greater portion of the 
total area, has an entirely different aspect. It is, indeed, dissected 
by one great gorge, the Minnesota Valley, the physiographic devel- 
opment of which, as shown by its width and depth, is anomalous as 
compared with that of the region through which it passes. The mo- 
notony of the upland surface is also interrupted by several smaller 
gorgelike valleys, most conspicuous among which are those of the 
upper Mississippi, Blue Earth, and Des Moines. Moreover, these major 
valleys are joined by many rugged, canyon-like tributaries that are 
incised into the uplands, locally producing a surface similar to that 
found in the southeastern province. But this stream erosion is local 
and exceptional. Nearly all these tributary gorges are very short and 
affect the topography for only a few miles back from the major valleys. 
Extensive interstream areas are virtually untouched by stream action. 
In other words, in this province the cycle of denudation is just 
beginning, and the region is still in its physiographic infancy. The 
interstream regions, which comprise vastly the greater portion of the 
total area, constitute the unmodified drift plain, with its ground 
moraine and belts of terminal and recessional moraines. The numer- 
ous lakes, ponds, and swamps in this region show the lack of adequate 
drainage. Here and there sluggish streams meander lazily over the 
surface, conducting the water from one swamp to another and bringing 
it slowly toward some distant drainage channel. 

One district in this province — the slope from the coteau to the 
lower plain — is unique. Although the gradient of the general surface 
here is so slight that it is scarcely perceptible, yet it has been ample 
to allow the surface water to run off and erode to sufficient depths to 
tap the ground waters, and hence to start springs that give rise to 
perennial streams. The little canyons thus formed, like those 
tributary to the Minnesota and other major valleys, are being actively 
eroded headward, and are encroaching more and more on the upland 
surface, draining lakes and swamps and diverting the sluggish creeks 
which meander across the uplands. Here is a great arena of stream 
piracy. As the cycle advances, the lazy streams of the uplands, 
which are entirely consequent upon the slight original irregularities 
of the drift plain, will be captured at many points by the vigorous 
subsequent streams that are aggressively developing headward. 



30 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Each of the streams that rise on the coteau and empty into Minne- 
sota River encounters a diversity of conditions. It runs swiftly down 
from the coteau, eroding actively, but as it reaches the foot of the 
slope its grade is abruptly lessened and it is compelled to make its 
way across a broad, nearly flat plain. It is in much the same situation 
as a mountain torrent that descends through precipitous canyons 
and emerges suddenly on a broad plain where its velocity is checked 
and it is obliged to deposit its load and build up a great alluvial fan. 
Where the stream coming down from the coteau reaches the foot of 
the slope, it is no longer able to erode, and, indeed, can hardly trans- 
port the sediment it accumulates in its swift course. At first it 
flows virtually at the general level of the plain, but gradually, as it 
proceeds, it cuts a shallow valley. When at last it nears its mouth, 
it undergoes another profound change. The Minnesota is flowing at 
a level 100 or 200 feet lower, to reach which the stream must descend 
by leaps and bounds. Hence, when the stream leaves its shallow 
valley it enters a rugged and often picturesque gorge, from which it 
emerges into the broad Minnesota Valley, where it mingles its water 
with that of the greater stream. These are the vicissitudes of a 
youthful stream — one which has not yet adjusted its gradient to the 
topography of the region through which it flows. 

The topography of the extreme southwestern part of Minnesota 
differs somewhat from that of any considerable adjacent part of the 
State, although it is similar to that of a large area in Iowa. It is 
not notably dissected and has only shallow valleys, but its drainage 
is complete, lakes and swamps being few and far between. 

The topographic map (PI. I) shows that lakes are present through- 
out most of the territor}^ described, but that they are absent (1) in 
the southeastern province, (2) on the slope from the coteau, and (3) 
in the southwestern corner. Their scarcity in Lac qui Parle County 
and adjacent parts is explained in the report on that county. 

RELATION OF DRAINAGE TO UPLAND CONTOUR. 

It will be instructive at this point to inquire, What would be the 
directions of drainage if all the valleys made by recent erosion were 
filled and the original plateau surface were everywhere restored ? It 
is evident that the southwest corner would be drained southward, 
that the extensive northwestern trough would drain toward and along 
an axis nearly corresponding to the present Minnesota River from 
Big Stone Lake to Mankato, that the south-central trough would in 
like manner drain toward and along an axis roughly corresponding 
to Blue Earth River, and that the water from both these troughs 
would drain northeastward, nearly along the line of the present 
Minnesota River below Mankato. In other words, the drainage of 
most of southern Minnesota in its general features is consequent 



GEOLOGIC HISTORY. 31 

upon the contour of the upland surface. But in the southeast this 
is not true. If the upland surface were here restored no Mississippi 
River would flow southward, providing the outlet for the drainage 
of most of southern Minnesota, but, on the contrary, the surface 
waters would flow, in general, northward from the high ground in 
the southeast toward the lower region in the northeast. In going 
from St. Paul down the Mississippi this discordance between the direc- 
tion of drainage and the direction of the upland slope is apparent. 
At St. Paul the cliffs from the valley bottom to the upland level are 
only of moderate height, but they become increasingly higher down- 
stream, at a rate entirely out of proportion to the gradient of the 
stream, until they tower above the river in picturesque grandeur. 
Farther south, along the eastern margin of Iowa, the upland surface 
slopes southward and the cliffs diminish in height. 

The influence of the topography on the level of the ground-water 
table, the general underground circulation, the occurrence of springs, 
and the artesian pressure or conditions of the region is fully considered 
in this report, both in the general discussion and in the various county 
reports. 

GEOLOGIC HISTORY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 

GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Five great rock divisions occur in southern Minnesota. Named in 
the order of their age, these are the Archean, Algonkian, Paleozoic 
(here including the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Devonian systems), 
Cretaceous, and Quaternary. Tertiary stream deposits doubtless 
exist in some localities, but they are so unimportant that they have 
not been differentiated and are here considered with the Quaternary. 

In the northwestern and the north-central parts of the area the 
Archean system, consisting of granite and allied crystallines, outcrops 
in a number of localities and everywhere lies within a few hundred 
feet of the surface, but toward the south and east it slopes downward 
abruptly and is found only at considerable depths (PI. III). In the 
southwest the Sioux quartzite, which is of Algonkian age, projects 
up through younger formations in four districts and appears at the 
surface at numerous localities (PL III). The contact between the 
quartzite and the granite is nowhere exposed, and has only rarely 
been reached in drilling. 

In the east and south, where the granite is far below the surface, 
it is overlain by a succession of indurated sandstones, shales, and 
limestones, aggregating many hundreds of feet in thickness, at least 
the upper part being of Paleozoic age. Throughout most of the 
western part, and probably in isolated areas of the eastern part, of 
southern Minnesota, Archean, Algonkian, and Paleozoic rocks are 



32 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

covered by Cretaceous deposits consisting of soft, plastic shales and 
incoherent sandstones which together attain a maximum thickness of 
at least 500 feet, though they are generally much thinner. Spread out 
over all of these formations is a mantle of glacial drift which was laid 
down in the Pleistocene epoch, and which, except for the alluvium 
recently formed in stream valleys, is the youngest deposit in the 
region. 

PRE-PALEOZOIC TIME. 

It is difficult to outline, even in a general way, the pre-Paleozoic 
history of southern Minnesota. That the Sioux quartzite originated 
as a deposit of sand is shown by the cross bedding and ripple marks 
that are still preserved. Later it became thoroughly indurated, at 
least in some parts; it was affected by diastrophic movements, the 
character and intensity of which are unknown; and through these 
movements it came to be subjected to erosion, which, no doubt, was 
long continued. The prevailing features of the now nearly buried 
quartzite surface seem to be elevated table-lands here and there dis- 
sected by canyons, and generally ending in abrupt escarpments, 



Feet 

IOOO-, 


LAC QUI PARLE CO 


RENVILLE CO~~--..^ Glencoe 

S. j}Paleozoic 


(Minneapolis) Red Wing 




Granlta 
Sea level 


(Paleozoic / 


[Paleozoic 


IOOO- 




~'a\ >Ked series 


*lRed y 
[clastic s^P 
[series y^y 


--IOOO 






Horizontal scale 
o io 20 30 40 50 60 Miles 







Figure 2.— Diagrammatic section across southern Minnesota. 

beyond which the quartzite disappears to depths not reached even 
by deep wells; but just what processes produced this fossil topog- 
raphy is a matter of speculation. 

As has been indicated, in the eastern part of the area here con- 
sidered, the granitic surface is low and is deeply buried beneath 
sedimentary rocks, while in the northwest it is everywhere relatively 
near the present surface. When the sedimentation in the east began, 
the granitic surface probably had even greater relief than it has at 
present; the sinking of this surface in the east, which seems to have 
taken place since that time, probably being more than counter- 
balanced by the erosion that has reduced the elevation in the north- 
west. These relations are shown in Plates III and V, and, with less 
detail, in figure 2, in which the dotted line x-x' represents, in a con- 
servative generalization, the projection of the pre-Paleozoic granitic 
surface, and hence suggests the relief of that surface in the west 
before it was reduced by erosion. 

The depression formed in the east by the granitic surface is filled 
with indurated sediments (fig. 2). The upper strata of these sedi- 



GEOLOGIC HISTOEY. 33 

ments outcrop and, by the fossils which they include, are known to 
be of Paleozoic age; the lower part consists of a great thickness of 
red clastic beds which are not known to come to the surface, and 
whose age and relations are therefore problematic. Their exact re- 
lations to the red Sioux quartzite, on the one hand, and to the 
recognized Paleozoic strata, on the other, remain undetermined. 
N. H. Winchell and Warren Upham, the former then state geologist, 
believed that the Sioux quartzite, the Keweenawan series of the Lake 
Superior region, and the red clastic beds encountered below the recog- 
nized Paleozoic strata in deep drilling in southeastern Minnesota are 
all Paleozoic (equivalent to the Potsdam of New York); that the red 
clastic beds are younger than the Keweenawan series; and that they 
lie conformably below the recognized Paleozoic sediments. Their 
view as to the age of these rock series has never been generally accepted 
and appears to have all the probabilities against it. Recently C. W. 
Hall has restudied the red clastic series. He has indicated his disbe- 
lief in the assumption that it is closely related to the Sioux quartzite, 
and has shown that its lithologic character, stratigraphic situation, 
and geographic relations suggest that it is the sedimentary extension 
of the Keweenawan rocks of the Lake Superior basin, and may 
represent a transition from Proterozoic to Paleozoic time. 6 In this 
paper it is tentatively called Algonkian ( ?). 

PALEOZOIC PERIODS OF SEDIMENTATION. 

During much of the first part of the Paleozoic era the sea extended 
into the southern and eastern part of the area, but there is no evi- 
dence that at any time it covered the northwestern part. In order 
to understand the physical history of this period it is necessary to 
revert to the subject of the contour of the granitic surface. In the 
northwestern and north-central parts of the area this surface is every- 
where within a few hundred feet of the present surface ; in the eastern 
and southern parts it lies very much lower; and the transition from 
the higher level of the northwest to the lower levels of the southeast 
is strikingly abrupt (Pis. Ill and V and fig. 2). It is as if the ele- 
vations of an irregular surface of great relief were beveled off to a 
certain level, and the most rational explanation seems to be that 
such a beveling has in fact taken place. At the beginning of the 
Paleozoic there was probably a high granitic area in the northwest. 
As the era progressed this elevated district was worn down and 
furnished sediments which were deposited in the southeastern 
depressions and regions beyond, into which the sea had come, the base 

a Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol, 1, 1882, pp. 422, 424, and 537. 
6 Unpublished manuscript. 

60920°— wsp 256—11—3 



34 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

level to which the denudation was carried varying more or less, of 
course, with the oscillations of the sea. At first, when the land was 
high and erosion was rapid, the sediments were all clastic, and a 
portion of them were gravelly; later, when the land had been re- 
duced to a lower relief, there were long epochs in which only small 
quantities of fine sediments were borne seaward, and in the clear 
waters, teeming with lime-secreting animals, were formed thick beds 
of limestone. At last the submerged depressions became nearly 
filled with sediments and only a slight change in the level of the 
sea was necessary to drain the southeastern area. 

The Paleozoic rock succession of southern Minnesota contains one 
prominent unconformity, with others, no doubt, of minor impor- 
tance. The stratigraphic record proves that the sea extended into 
this area during at least the latter portion of the Cambrian period 
and nearly all <>1* the Ordovieian, and again during a part of the 
Devonian period. It further proves that the area emerged at some 
time during the late Ordovieian, the Silurian, or the early Devonian, 
for the Devonian strata rest upon an erosion surface of the Ordovieian. 
The Paleozoic history can therefore be summarized as follow-: A 
long period of submergence and sedimentation with many vicissitudes 
of relatively minor importance; a gradual hut probably complete 
emergence; a period of erosion; asecond submergence less extensive; 
and a complete ami final emergence, followed by a long period of 
erosion. 

PRE-CRETACEOUS ERA OF EROSION. 

The era <>f erosion which followed t he I Devonian sedimentation must 
have been long. From all indications it continued without interrup- 
tion during the latter part of the Paleozoic and throughout all of 
the Triassic, Jurassic, and early Cretaceous periods of the Mesozoic. 
Not until the middle or late Cretaceous did the sea again invade the 
region. During all this time none hut the most gentle diastrophic 
movements took place, ami it i- improbable that the region was ever 

lifted to any great height ahove the sea or had any pronounced relief. 

In the area in which the Cretaceous sediments rest upon the 
Archean, the upper part of the latter i- almost everywhere thoroughly 
decomposed to ; , considerable depth. The granitic residuum and the 
deposits immediately derived therefrom ate described at some length 
in the report- on Redwood and Renville counties, and it i< only neces- 
sary to peruse the reports «, n the various counties in which the 
Cretaceous rests on the Archean in order to understand how wide- 
spread and profound was the decomposition of the Archean surface 
at the time the record was sealed. This condition can not be without 
significance. It musl mean that the region was low and that the 




SHOWING GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE AND QUALITY OF UNDERGROUND WATER IN SOUTHERN MINNE 



GEOLOGIC HISTOEY. 35 

erosive agents had become inoperative in removing the products of 
weathering, which were consequent^ allowed to accumulate to great 
depths. 

Another significant fact shown by the numerous sections given in 
this report and by all other available data is that the sediments which 
comprise the Cretaceous system, even in its basal members, consist 
almost exclusively of impalpable clay and of quartz sand such as 
would result from the complete decomposition of the granite. Basal 
gravels would probably not be so generally wanting if the region as a 
whole had possessed any great relief. 

What was the topography when the Cretaceous sedimentation 
began? Was southern Minnesota then a peneplain? The upland 
surface formed by the Paleozoic rocks of southeastern Minnesota and 
adjacent parts of Wisconsin and Iowa have long been regarded as an 
ancient peneplain (fig. 2), but, because Cretaceous sediments are not 
found here to any extent, it is not certainly determined whether this 
supposed peneplain was pre-Cretaceous or post-Cretaceous. But 
farther west, where Cretaceous strata rest directly upon the weathered 
Archean surface, the topography that existed immediately preceding 
the sedimentation has been preserved, except in so far as more recent 
deformations have produced modifications. Plates III and V show 
essentially what is known about this fossil topography. It is evi- 
dent from these plates that, while it appears nearly level when com- 
pared with the topography of the granitic surface preserved beneath 
the more ancient sediments, it has a relief of several hundred feet. 
Although changes of elevation have taken place since Cretaceous 
time, many of the irregularities are of such a character that they 
must have been present at the time of the Cretaceous sedimentation. 
If a further allowance is made for a certain amount of possible rejuve- 
nation of the streams concomitant with the submergence, it still 
remains a question how nearly the ancient surface may at one time 
have approximated a base level. The Sioux quartzite areas certainly 
rose several hundred feet above the surrounding country and formed 
ridges or mesas of striking prominence, comparable to the present 
quartzite ridges near Baraboo, Wis., while much lower and yet dis- 
tinct elevations also existed in the granite areas. 

CRETACEOUS PERIOD OF SEDIMENTATION. 

The Cretaceous seas encroached upon southern Minnesota from the 
west, and extended eastward an indefinite distance. The areas of 
Sioux quartzite were apparently not submerged, but were surrounded 
by the sea, thus forming rocky islands. A maximum of fully 500 feet 
of sediments were laid down, consisting chiefly of impalpable clay 
with some interbedded strata of sand. (See the report on Lyon 



36 UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

County.) The submergence probably began in the Dakota epoch 
and ended in the Niobrara, although this is not definitely known. 

POST-CRETACEOUS TIME. 

Since the sea retreated in Cretaceous time it has not again returned, 
and throughout the Tertiary the entire area was once more subjected 
to stream erosion. Several times the Pleistocene or ''Glacial" con- 
tinental ice sheets invaded the region from the north, eroded the 
surface, and finally retreated, leaving thick deposits of glacial drift. 
All but the southeastern corner was at one time covered with ice, 
and by far the greater part was overridden by the ice of the last 
advance. The slight amount of postglacial stream erosion accom- 
plished upon the }^oungest drift sheet has been described in connection 
with the physiography. 

The uplands of southeastern Minnesota and adjacent parts seem 
to represent a surface which was first beveled and then gently bowed 
up. Mississippi River flows through this elevated area in a direction 
nearly opposite to the inclination of the upland surface. Such a 
condition could be brought about in several ways, but probably 
the river existed before the present elevation, and was able to cut 
down its valley rapidly enough to maintain its course in spite of the 
regional uplift. The amount of erosion effected by the Mississippi 
and its tributaries in this area gives a rough measure of the time that 
has elapsed since the uplift and present denudation cycle began. 
The time represented by this erosion is certainly brief when com- 
pared to the total time involved in the geologic history recorded in 
southern Minnesota; it is certainly very long when compared to the 
time since the youngest drift sheet was deposited. 

The preglacial topography of the region in the southwest known 
as the Coteau des- Prairies is still imperfectly understood, mainly 
owing to the great thickness of the drift deposits, at least in some 
localities. But this thickness of the drift itself proves that the present 
plateau-like elevation of the coteau is not entirely preglacial in origin. 
(See the report on Lincoln County, pp. 232-236.) Nevertheless, 
the high quartzite areas were there at the time of the ice invasions, 
and associated with them there was probably other relatively high 
ground; and these elevations were together competent to block the 
ice or divert its course to some extent. Thus in the last glacial 
epoch, and perhaps in a measure in earlier invasions, the ice assumed 
the shape of a huge tongue which was pushed across southern Minne- 
sota and far into Iowa, occupying the relatively low region repre- 
sented by the Minnesota and Blue Earth basins, and confined between 
the quartzite ridges and associated high land on the one side and 
the elevated area of southeastern Minnesota on the other. Plate II 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE VI 



i;, .-, 



Cretaceous. 



Algonkian (!). 



Formation. 



Columnar sectin 




Benton shale. 



Dakota sandstone. 



Maquoketa shale. 
Galena limestone. 
Deoorah shale. 
Platteville limestone. 

St. Peter sandstone. 
Prairie du Chien group: 

Shakopee dolomite. 

New Richmond sandstone. 

Oneota dolomite. 



ordan sandstone 



Drtslmch sandston 



Red elastic serie 



Sioux qiiartzite. m 




Character of strata. 



nsisting oi bowlder clay, sand, gravel. 



Approximate 

thickness. 



Yields freely in some valleys 



Soft blue shale and incoherent sandstone. 



White sandstone, etc. 



Limestone and sandston 



Shale, dolomite, and argillaceous! 
Limestone and shale. 

White or yellow sandstone, with f 

Yellow, bull', pink, or red dolomiti 

White sandstone. 

Buff' to reddish dolomite. 



Coarse-grained white sandstone. 

Dolomite, shale, and sandstone. 

Fine-grained white sandstone; shaly beds toward base. 

Shale, white sandstone, and thin limestone. 



\ Eefds small or moderate supplies l'n 



Yields small or moderate suppli" 



Locally yields moderate supplh 



Locally yields small supplies. 
Yields moderate or large supplies 

Yields large supplies. 

Locally yields small supplies. 
Yields moderate supplies. 
Generally yields moderate supplh 



Yields large supplies. 
Yields little water. 
Yields large supplies. 
Yields freely in some parts. 



Red sandstone and shale. Partly volcanic clastic rocks. 



YVhiteclay. (Decomposition |,nVm/t. In ,. : u t cuoiked 

and then bek.n:.'in*lM-..perl) ' » the Cretaceous 
D.-enn.p..sed granitic rock of red, yellow, orareea <-Olor. 



. gneis3, and schist. 



•i iclds little, water. 



Yields small supplies, 



Rarely yields small supplh 
Rarely yields small supplh 



>'.>t water bearing. 



GEOLOGIC SECTION OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 3Y 

reveals a remarkable variation in the thickness of the drift, and also 
makes it evident that this variation has a relation to the path of ice 
movement. The drift is thin along the central portion of the tract 
followed by the ice tongue of the last invasion ; it is thick — locally very 
thick — along the margins of this tract as delineated by the moraines. 
The explanation appears to be that the ice tongue tended to erode 
along the central portion of its course where it was thick and the 
axial velocity relatively great, while it deposited its load along the 
margins toward which it deployed. The data at hand seem to show 
that the Cretaceous deposits have been removed to a greater extent 
along the axis of the ancient ice tongue than on either side. This 
may be the result of preglacial stream erosion, but it may also be due 
to the greater erosive activity of the ice along this line. 

GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING 

CAPACITY. 

By C. W. Hall. 

The five great geologic divisions recognized in this area have 
already been described. In the order of their age and superposition 
they are the Archean, Algonkian, Paleozoic (which here includes 
Cambrian, Ordovician, and Devonian rocks), Cretaceous, and Quater- 
nary (including the Pleistocene series, the Recent series, and some 
undifferentiated Tertiary stream deposits). (See PI. VI.) In regard 
to their importance in furnishing water supplies, the Pleistocene ranks 
first and the Paleozoic second, while the Cretaceous and Algonkian 
are of minor value, and the Archean is virtually destitute of available 
supplies, everywhere marking the lower limit of water horizons. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

DEFINITION. 

The term "surface deposits" will be used throughout this paper to 
include all Pleistocene and Recent formations, together with such pre- 
Pleistocene materials as can not well be differentiated from them — 
for example, Tertiary stream deposits, which without doubt exist in 
some localities. In other words, it is made to include the glacial 
drift and all associated water and wind deposits, as well as the allu- 
vium laid down in the valleys outside of the drift-covered area. 
Such a terni is . «en to numerous criticisms, but is here employed 
because of its great convenience in describing underground water 
supplies. In discussing the surface deposits the following convenient 
but rather arbitrary subdivisions are recognized: (1) Glacial drift, 
(2) outwash and terrace deposits, (3) recent alluvium, (4) loess, 
and (5) dune sands. 



38 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

GLACIAL DRIFT. 

The bulk of the glacial drift consists of a matrix of clay in which 
are imbedded, in the most promiscuous manner, pebbles and bowlders 
of various sizes and composition, the whole forming an impervious 
mass known' as bowlder clay or till. This material was deposited by 
the various ice sheets which invaded southern Minnesota in the 
Pleistocene epoch. It was laid down either at the base of the ice as 
ground moraine or at the margin of the ever-melting ice sheet as 
terminal or recessional moraines. Intermingled and interbedded 
with this impervious bowlder clay, in the most intricate, chaotic, 
and varied maimer, and also frequently lying beneath it or above it, 
there are beds of porous, water-laid sands and gravels which consti- 
tute the water-bearing members of the drift. In some places these 
sand and gravel beds lie between two till sheets of distinctly different 
age, and represent an interglacial epoch, but the majority of them 
probably have not this significance. Inspection of the numerous 
sections of the drift given in this report makes it evident that, 
although a very large percentage of its material consists of impervious 
bowlder clay, the interbedded layers of sand and gravel are present 
in nearly every locality, and are nearly always encountered by wells 
penetrating the drift to any considerable depth. By comparing the 
well sections of the same locality, it also becomes evident that most 
of these porous beds vary widely in thickness, in coarseness of mate- 
rial, and in the depth at which they lie. Only rarely can a bed be 
traced definitely by means of well sections for more than a few miles. 
In the terminal and recessional moraines the percentage of sand and 
gravel is much higher than in the more general ground moraine. 

In general the drift has a dark color due to the unoxidized condition 
of the iron which it contains, but at the surface there is a nearly con- 
tinuous mantle of yellow, partly oxidized drift, varying in thickness 
but averaging perhaps not over 15 feet and nowhere attaining any 
great depth. The water in the drift is almost universally charged 
with iron in the soluble ferrous condition due to the general dearth 
of oxygen, but the analyses show that in the surficial yellow zone 
the water is comparatively free from iron, the obvious explanation 
being that the iron is here oxidized to the relatively insoluble ferric 
condition. In many of the undrained depressions peat deposits are 
forming at the present time from the accumulation of vegetable 
matter, and in these localities ferric compounds may be absent. 
Occasionally beds of yellow clay, as well as thin layers of soil and 
peat, exist between the deposits of dark "blue" clay. 

The gray or blue till, which constitutes the bulk of the drift of 
southern Minnesota, is derived in large part from the Cretaceous 
shales of this color. Pebbles of crumbly, gray-blue shale are fre- 
quently found in well drillings and surface exposures, and this shale 
is referred without question to the Cretaceous. In certain localities 



GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 39 

in the eastern part of the State, however, deposits of red drift occur, 
the material evidently being derived from the red formations of the 
Lake Superior region. The distinction between northwestern and 
northeastern drift is frequently very clear and even striking, and the 
mineral composition of the water can, in a measure, be predicted 
through a knowledge of the source of the glacial drift from which it is 
derived. 

All but the southeastern portion of southern Minnesota was invaded 
by one or more ice sheets and (with the exception of a few small rock 
outcrops) is now covered with glacial drift. As has already been 
pointed out, the thickness of the drift varies through a wide range, 
and in some localities is great. The thickness of surface deposits, as 
shown on Plate II, is based on the large number of well sections 
assembled in the course of the investigation. In localities where few 
wells penetrate the underlying rocks and in localities where the forma- 
tion immediately beneath the drift is so similar in general character 
to the drift itself that drillers do not differentiate clearly between the 
two, the map is necessarily more or less inaccurate and the thickness 
indicated is likely to be too great. 

The drift lying at the surface along the eastern margin of the gla- 
ciated area, though probably not all of the same age, is distinctly 
older than the Wisconsin drift which covers most of southern Minne- 
sota. This difference in age is shown chiefly by the differences in 
the amount of weathering and erosion. In the oldest drift the calca- 
reous matter has been leached out completely to a depth of several 
feet, but in the Wisconsin drift this leaching has scarcely begun. The 
upper part of the oldest drift has been oxidized to a deep brown, but 
in the Wisconsin drift the oxidation of the surficial zone has generally 
gone only far enough to produce a pale bluish yellow color. The 
areal distribution of the Wisconsin drift and that of the older drift 
sheets, as well as the belts of terminal and recessional moraines, are 
shown in Plate II. 

The surficial layer of drift is generally not very compact, and hence 
allows a slow percolation of water, especially along the more grav- 
elly seams, but also to some extent through the unconsolidated 
clayey portions. Since the surface is usually poorly drained, this 
upper layer is in general saturated nearly or quite to the top, and very 
shallow dug or bored wells receive sufficient seepage for small supplies. 
However, in periods of prolonged drought the ground-water level is 
lowered, and these shallow wells are frequently left entirely dry. At 
greater depths occur the seams of sand and gravel already described, 
through which the water percolates more freely and in which it is 
under greater pressure, and hence will be supplied to wells at a much 
more rapid rate. Drilled wells ending in the best of these sand and 
gravel horizons yield supplies which are but slightly affected by 
drought, and which are adequate not only for farm use but for all 



40 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

ordinary industrial and public purposes as well. In the various 
county reports and in the table of public water supplies (pp. 98-113) 
will be found a large amount of specific information in regard to the 
yield of wells ending in the drift. 

OUTWASH AND TERRACE DEPOSITS. 

Large streams overloaded with rock debris issued from the melting 
ice sheets of the Pleistocene epoch and flowed over the surface, depos- 
iting beds of gravel, sand, and clay, in part quite distinct from the 
drift proper. Eventually these glacial floods entered preexisting val- 
leys and rapidly filled them with rock debris. More recently the 
streams have cut into this filling, and now flow at lower levels, leaving 
the remnants as terraces. 

Outwash sands and gravels occur in many portions of southern 
Minnesota. Nearly the whole of Anoka County is covered by them, 
as well as large portions of many of the counties to the west. Ter- 
races are found mainly in the valleys of Mississippi River and Minne- 
sota River, but also occur along the smaller tributaries of these 
streams within the driftless area of southeastern Minnesota. Other 
elevated valley deposits remote from any present lines of drainage 
may be mentioned. Among these are the channel leading from 
Mendota southeastward across Dakota County to Rosemount, that 
from the northwestern corner of the same county to the Vermilion 
Valley near Farmington, and the chain of kamelike deposits in 
northern Kandiyohi County. The terraces along the Mississippi vary 
in width from a few hundred yards to over 10 miles, as in the "Prairie" 
south of Hastings. Along the Minnesota the most extensive terraces 
are found near Shakopee and Belle Plaine, and opposite St. Peter. 
Of these the first and second have a width of 1^ miles, while the third 
has a width of about 4 miles. 

The outwash sands and gravels, being open and porous, readily 
absorb the rain falling upon them. Where they are underlain by 
impervious clay, and where the region remains undissected by stream 
erosion, they are saturated nearly to the surface with water that con- 
tains relatively small amounts of dissolved minerals and is yielded 
freely to shallow dug or driven wells. 

In the terraces most of the water is derived directly from the rain, 
although some comes from the seepage out of the rocks forming the 
valley walls. The terrace gravels and sands are open and porous, 
and although they absorb water quickly, are as ready to give it up 
where the conditions are favorable as where they are cut by deep 
valleys. In the narrow terraces, and to some extent in the broader 
sandy ones, little water exists above the level of the bottom of the 
adjacent valley, although at many points some distance back from 
the drainage channels water is found at higher levels, owing to the 



GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 41 

slope of the ground-water table. Where clayey layers are found, local 
water pockets may exist in depressions in the impervious bed. 

RECENT ALLUVIUM. 

This term refers to the gravel, sand, and clay deposited by the 
streams since the close of the Pleistocene epoch. It is present in 
greater or less amounts in all the valleys of southern Minnesota, but 
the thickest accumulations are in portions of the Mississippi and Minne- 
sota valleys, where it locally attains a depth of over 100 feet. 

The water of the alluvium is derived in part from the direct down- 
ward percolation of the rain falling on the flood plains, in part from 
seepage from the adjoining hillsides, and in part from the river in its 
flood stages, ^hen the water level in the stream rises faster than the 
ground water, the ordinary movement, which is toward the stream, 
is reversed and the river water penetrates the alluvium on each side. 
Although the alluvium is usually saturated below the level of the 
stream, not all of the water is available to wells. Clayey materials, 
although containing much water, hold it so firmly that little or none 
is given up, and even sands do not always yield their water freely. 
Hence it not infrequently happens that wells fail to secure the needed 
supplies. However, where gravel or coarse sand is encountered the 
yield is large. 

LOESS. 

This deposit, locally known as yellow loam or yellow clay, is a fine, 
nearly structureless silt, with practically no coarse grains of any kind. 
It is buff in color, and although somewhat plastic when wet is not a 
true clay. It is found mainly on the upland plateaus of the south- 
eastern counties, where it locally attains a thickness of 25 feet. If it 
has ever been deposited at lower levels in the valleys, the evidences of 
its presence have for the most part been removed by the subsequent 
deepening and widening of the valleys. The loess of this region 
appears to have been deposited originally by glacial waters in the 
Mississippi Valley, and later to have been taken up by the wind and 
distributed over the uplands. The deposits in southern Minnesota 
are so thin and so high above the general ground-water level of the 
region that most of the rain which they absorb eventually escapes 
into the underlying materials. Hence the loess is almost never a 
source of water, even to open wells, although in other States where it 
is thicker it is not uncommonly p, source of importance. 

DUNE SAND. 

Dunes are found at several points in southern Anoka County, where 
the sand derived from the outwash deposits has been blown by the 
wind into bare rounded hills from 10 to 20 feet high. Because of their 
exposed position they are of little value as a source of water. 



4'2 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Cretaceous formations are present throughout most of the western 
half of the area, and thin scattered remnants appear to be widely 
distributed in much of the eastern half. But the mantle of drift is 
so nearly continuous and so little dissected by stream erosion that 
there are only a few small Cretaceous outcrops, and consequently 
knowledge in regard to the Cretaceous formations has been very 
meager until recently, when they have been penetrated by numerous 
deep wells. In their typical development in Bigstone County and 
in Lyon and adjacent counties they attain a maximum thickness, 
as far as known, of about 500 feet, and are composed of thick beds of 
plastic gray-blue shale, and thinner beds of white sand or sandstone. 
The shale, which is popularly known as "soapstone," contains pyri- 
tiferous layers or concretions, and in some parts includes numerous 
beautiful crystals of selenite. The sandstone beds, which form only 
a small portion of the total thickness, occur chiefly near the bottom 
and top of the series, although the Lyon County sections show a 
sandy horizon near the middle. While exact correlations are impos- 
sible, there is little question that the Cretaceous of southwestern 
Minnesota is continuous with that of South Dakota and western Iowa 
and corresponds to the Dakota, Benton, and possibly higher forma- 
tions. In the vicinity of New Ulm, where plant fossils referred to 
the Dakota have been described, the deposits have a more littoral 
aspect, and consist in large part of white sandstone and red clay. 

The sandstones are saturated with highly mineralized water under 
artesian pressure sufficient to bring it to the surface throughout con- 
siderable areas (PI. IV) . In a large portion of southwestern Minne- 
sota these sandstones constitute an important source of water supply. 
Although all the Cretaceous water is rich in certain dissolved minerals, 
some of it is soft, and hence much better for many purposes than 
the hard water from other horizons. 

PALEOZOIC ROCKS. 

Southern Minnesota contains a thick succession of Paleozoic for- 
mations comprising various beds of limestone, shale, and sandstones, 
most of which are of Cambrian or Ordovician age. Rocks of the 
Devonian period are but meagerly represented, and those of Silurian 
and Carboniferous age are not known in the area. 

DEVONIAN SYSTEM. 

The Devonian rocks occur in Mower County with extensions east 
into Fillmore County and west into Faribault. They are of various 
character. The lower portions consist of a gray, impure, somewhat 
granular limestone, interbedded with which are layers of shale of a 



GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 43 

dirty brown color, due to weathering. Above the limestone lies a 
division consisting of sandy layers which locally develop into a true 
sandstone. The total thickness can not be definitely determined, 
although the well at Austin revealed a section of 5 1 feet in which there 
were observed no sandy layers. The beds of sandstone constitute 
the principal water-bearing portions of the Devonian. Toward the 
west these become so deeply buried that the water in them is under 
considerable artesian pressure. 

ORBOVICIAN SYSTEM. 
MAQUOKETA SHALE. 

The Maquoketa shale, like the Devonian representative in this 
area, is composed of a series of beds of varied character. In the main 
it consists of light-gray shales, but toward the base it carries more 
or less magnesian limestone, and the upper layers consist of argil- 
laceous sandstone. The succession of beds is not constant, however, 
but varies from place to place. Where well developed the formation 
has a thickness of about 100 feet. More or less water exists in the 
pores and lamination planes of the shales, in the solution passages or 
bedding planes of the limestone or dolomite, and in the clayey sand- 
stone at the top, but the amounts are usually small and the forma- 
tion does not generally afford satisfactory supplies. 

GALENA LIMESTONE. 

The Galena limestone immediately underlies the Maquoketa shale, 
and is succeeded downward by the Decorah shale and the Platteville 
(" Trenton") limestone. It is composed of several distinct members. 
Its highest layer in the recognized section, designated the Maclurea 
zone, is coarsely stratified, and in weathering passes into a coarse 
porous rock having almost the water-bearing qualities of a sand- 
stone. It is strongly stained by the alteration of its content of ferrous 
carbonate and pyrite into oxides of iron. Beneath this lies a stratum 
20 feet thick, which is heavily bedded and in places strikingly colored 
by infiltration bands. It is frequently mistaken for a sandstone. On 
account of its characteristic fossils it is called the Lingulasma zone. 
Below this, constituting a heavily bedded stratum, is the Camarella 
zone, which is about 30 feet thick and is a somewhat carbonaceous 
limestone impregnated with iron pyrites and chalcopyrite. It is 
sharply separated from the shaly fossil-bearing layers of the under- 
lying Decorah shale. 

The well-defined bedding planes of the Galena limestone afford 
rather favorable conditions for the circulation of water, especially 
after they have been enlarged by solution, and moderate supplies 
are generally found by wells, except when the formation occurs on 
knobs and hills or near the edges of valleys where the water has an 



44 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

opportunity to escape to the lower lands. The supplies are most 
abundant in the basal layers, in which the water is collected along 
the contact of the impervious Decorah shale. 

DECORAH SHALE. 

The Decorah shale is known in many localities in Fillmore and 
Olmsted counties, at St. Charles and Clinton Falls, near Faribault, 
at Elgin, Cannon Falls and southward to Kenyon, old Concord, and 
Mendota, in Minneapolis and St. Paul, and at other points along the 
Mississippi gorge. It occurs persistently beneath the Galena lime- 
stone just described, and in many localities where the limestone has 
been removed by glacial erosion or weathering la} T ers of the Decorah 
shale of varying thickness are found. It is reached by drilling in a 
considerable area of southeastern Minnesota. These shales are fissile, 
crumble easily, and carry few fossils. Their color is green or greenish- 
gray, weathering always to a dirty brown, due to the amount of iron 
originally present as a sulphide or carbonate. Interbedded with 
the shales, and in some localities constituting more than one-half 
of the thickness of the formation, are layers of crystalline limestone 
made up of fossil bryozoa, corals, crinoidal forms, and brachiopods. 
The characteristics of this formation are so unique that it can gener- 
ally be recognized in well sections. It contains little water, but 
serves a useful purpose, since it forms an impervious layer which 
holds a supply of water in the overlying formations, particularly the 
glacial drift and loess, where these rest upon the Decorah shale. 

PLATTEVILLE LIMESTONE. 

Lying beneath the Decorah shale is a bed of limestone from 12 to 
30 feet in thickness, which is known as the Platteville or "Trenton" 
limestone. It is somewhat varied in lithologic character, in places 
being granular and even conglomeratic, while in others it is thoroughly 
crystalline. It is recognized in Minneapolis and St. Paul as the 
building-stone layer. In the southern part of the State it is more 
uniform from top to bottom and shows more distinctly the effects of 
water percolation along its joints and bedding planes. 

ST. PETER SANDSTONE. 

This formation is widely distributed and underlies the greater part 
of the area between Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, and much of 
Ramsey, Washington, Anoka, and Hennepin counties to the north. 
It varies from about 80 to 200 feet in thickness and consists of a fine- 
grained, white or yellow sandstone, with locally a bed of shale about 
40 feet above the base. 

The greater part of the water of the St. Peter sandstone enters 
through its outcrop, where it lies immediately below the glacial 
drift, which serves as an excellent feeder. North of the Mississippi 



GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 45 

and along its western margin extending through Scott, Lesueur, 
Waseca, Blue Earth, and Faribault counties, the formation is covered 
with drift. In Dakota County, however, especially in the southern 
part, the coating is thin, and the sandstone, except for a few feet of 
soil, is at the immediate surface and absorbs considerable quantities 
of water directly from the rainfall. In the counties along the Mis- 
sissippi it caps the uplands over extensive areas, except for a thin 
cover of loess which helps to collect the water and feed it to the 
sandstone. Owing to its position on the uplands throughout the 
southern portion of the area and to the deep channels cut into it by 
the Mississippi and its tributaries, its waters are here drained into 
the valleys, leaving the adjacent portions of the formation with only 
meager supplies. In the vicinity of St. Paul and Minneapolis the 
Mississippi cuts deeply into the St. Peter but does not penetrate the 
shale parting in the lower portion, and therefore the water beneath 
is confined and when encountered by wells will rise in large quan- 
tities nearly or quite to the surface. In the area between the Minne- 
sota and Mississippi margins the St. Peter, in common with other 
beds, is bent into a broad basin, the center of which is considerably 
depressed below the rims. In this basin, owing to the comparatively 
impervious overlying and underlying beds, the waters are confined 
under artesian pressure sufficient to lift them many feet above the 
level at which they are encountered, and the amount yielded is 
consequently large. 

PRAIRIE DTJ CHIEN GROUP. 

Shakopee dolomite. — This formation is a fine-grained, granular, 
yello\v, buff, pink, or reddish magnesian limestone, commonly ranging 
from 25 to 75 feet in thickness. In some localities the rock is oolitic 
and in others some quartz sand is present. It outcrops at Shakopee 
and elsewhere near Minnesota River and between St. Paul and Hast- 
ings on the Mississippi. To the south it rises to the uplands, underlies 
the thick drift deposits along the east side of the Minnesota, and out- 
crops in the bluffs and ravines adjoining the Mississippi. At Shako- 
pee, Inver Grove, and elsewhere a few wells end in this formation, but 
the supplies which it yields are very small. Most wells either stop 
in the overlying sandstone or penetrate a lower horizon. 

New Richmond sandstone. — This bed is rarely seen in outcrop and 
is not generally recognized by drillers in the northern counties. In 
the southern part of the State, however, it becomes better denned 
and apparently attains a thickness as great as 40 feet in some locali- 
ties. In exposures it is somewhat iron-stained, but drillings usually 
show it to be a pure white quartz sand. It is often more or less 
cemented by lime, which fact makes it difficult to distinguish it in 
wells from the limestone above and below, especially where, as at 
points in the north, it appears to be very thin. 



46 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The water probably enters chiefly through joints and other open- 
ings in the associated limestones. In the more calcareous phases it 
occurs in what are termed "fissures" by the drillers, but which 
appear to be local sandy zones from which the cement has been dis- 
solved, leaving layers of nearly pure sand. In some places joints 
and true solution openings seem to exist. In the sandy phases the 
water occupies the pores between the grains as in the St. Peter and 
other sandstones. Notwithstanding its thinness, the New Rich- 
mond is a very persistent water-bearing bed, being found throughout 
nearly the entire area, alwaj^s yielding more or less water, except 
where drained by adjacent valleys. In the north, where the forma- 
tion is especially thin, the supplies are generally small, although 
nearly always sufficient for domestic or farm demands. In Minne- 
apolis and St. Paul there are, however, many important wells receiv- 
ing their water from this sandstone. 

Oneota dolomite. — This is a buff or reddisn magnesian limestone 
from 75 to 175 feet or more in thickness. In texture it is sometimes 
granular, apparently being made up of a very fine dolomitic sand, 
which not infrequently shows distinct stratification and cross-bedding, 
but as a rule it is seen in heavy uniform layers of a thoroughly crys- 
talline habit. In its upper portion abound small openings and 
pockets from one-fourth to one-half inch or more in diameter and 
generally lined with crystals, giving the rock a distinctly porous 
character. In the southeastern counties, where the limestone is 
strongly developed in the bluffs of the Mississippi and its tributaries, 
there are extensive solution passages, some of which reach the 
dimensions of caves that may be penetrated for some distance. On 
the west the formation is seldom seen at the surface, but exists 
beneath the drift and outcrops in a few localities near Minnesota 
River. In the tract between the Minnesota and the eastern expo- 
sures along the Mississippi it lies beneath a thick covering of younger 
rocks (Pis. IV and V). 

In the upper and more porous portion of this formation small 
quantities of water are found, but the greater part is contained in 
the larger solution passages representing joints, bedding planes, or 
other lines of easy circulation, greatly enlarged by streams and sheets 
of percolating waters. One of these solution passages, known as 
Tyson's cave, about 4 miles northeast of Wykoff, is said to have an 
underground stream upon which a boat can penetrate for 200 feet. 
The flow of this stream is given as 50 cubic feet per minute. Another 
large stream, 1^ miles south of Lanesboro, flows 360 cubic feet per 
minute, and has in the past been used as a source of water power 
Owing to the density of the limestone, it affords little water to wells, 
except from the solution passages. When these are encountered 
they generally yield freely, but it is always uncertain when or where 
they will be penetrated by the drill. On the flat upland bordering 



GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 47 

the Mississippi, the formation is an important source of domestic 
and farm supplies, except where drained by adjacent valleys, in 
which the numerous springs issuing from it are of considerable 
importance. 

CAMBRIAN SYSTEM. 

Jordan sandstone. — The Jordan sandstone is a loosely cemented, 
medium to coarse grained, white sandstone, becoming yellow or 
brown by oxidation along its outcrops and jointing planes. It 
ranges from less than 75 to nearly 200 feet thick and is exposed in 
the valleys of the Minnesota and tributary streams and in the lower 
part of the bluffs of the Mississippi and its branches from near Hast- 
ings southward to the Iowa state line. Elsewhere it is deeply buried 
beneath younger rocks (Pis. IV and V). Except in the areas adja- 
cent to its outcrops, it is saturated with water, which is under pres- 
sure and is yielded freely. When several wells are located close 
together there is a liability c^f some interference, but this is not com- 
monly serious. Except perhaps in Minneapolis and St. Paul, and at 
its outcrop areas, it is believed that the formation will yield all the 
supplies that it will be called upon to furnish for a long time to come. 

St. Lawrence formation. — This formation consists of buff magnesian 
limestone, alternating with layers of greenish shale, more or less 
sandy, and in its upper portion with beds of green sand several feet 
in thickness. It underlies nearly all of southeastern Minnesota, 
outcropping only in the Minnesota Valley west of Mankato and in that 
part of the Mississippi Valley near the Iowa line. Its thickness 
commonly ranges between 100 and 200 feet. The water of the for- 
mation is probably obtained almost entirely from the porous over- 
lying and underlying sandstones and from the glacial drift where this 
rests directly upon it. It is not a water-bearing formation of impor- 
tance, and is seldom if ever utilized, the yield being small. Its chief 
value lies in its function as a confining bed. 

Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales. — The Dresbach sand- 
stone underlies the St. Lawrence formation. It is seen along St. 
Croix River in northern Washington County and along Mississippi 
River in the southeastern part of the State. It also occurs in the 
Minnesota Valley, and has been reached by deep wells in every part 
of southeastern Minnesota as far west as Blue Earth and Faribault 
counties. It consists of an incoherent fine-grained sand of a prevail- 
ingly white color in its upper portion, followed downward by more 
compact layers with associated shaly beds. Throughout south- 
eastern Minnesota, wells which penetrate the formation show a 
thickness ranging between 50 and 100 feet at the various localities 
where records are preserved. 

The formation is an important bearer of water. The water, which 
comes largely from the eroded edges lying beneath the glacial drift, 



48 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

is nearly everywhere under artesian pressure, and usually rises above 
the surface within the gorges of Mississippi and St. Croix rivers and 
some of their tributaries. The formation seems to consist of two 
or three somewhat independent water-bearing beds, which differ in 
their yield and in the height to which the water will rise. 

Beneath the Dresbach sandstone lies a series of beds having a 
persistently shaly habit. In some places the shale assumes a calca- 
reous character and carries layers of limestone several inches in 
thickness. More rarely pyritiferous beds occur, in which pellets and 
crystals of iron sulphide constitute a considerable portion of the 
material. Farther south these beds become less shaly and attain a 
thickness of several hundred feet, a large part of which consists of 
water-bearing sandstone. In the Minnesota Valley the beds come 
to the surface within a few miles of New Ulm, and their catchment 
basin extends beneath the drift from Brown County in a north- 
easterly direction to Chisago County and thence into Wisconsin. 
They hold much water under good artesian pressure, but are seldom 
penetrated in drilling because satisfactory supplies are usually 
obtained before they are reached. 

ALGONKIAN SYSTEM (?). 

Red clastic series. — The red clastic series, being generally deeply 
buried, is the least known of any rocks in the area. Nevertheless 
these red beds are revealed by deep drilling everywhere from the 
gneisses and quartzites of the southwestern counties eastward into 
Wisconsin and from the Iowa boundary northward beyond Still- 
water. They are nowhere exposed within this area, except possibly 
at Courtland, near New Ulm, in some coarse conglomerates lying upon 
the Sioux quartzite. In thickness they vary greatly, being many 
hundreds of feet thick at Minneapolis and Stillwater and gradually 
thinning out toward the south. In texture they vary from coarse 
conglomerate, through varying phases of sandstone, to fine shale, 
which usually forms the upper part. In color they also vary some- 
what, being much redder in the north than to the southeast. From 
their stratigraphic situation and relation to other rock formations it 
seems probable that these rocks are the sedimentary extension of the 
Keweenawan series of the Lake Superior basin. This opinion is 
strengthened by the fact that similar volcanic rocks are character- 
istic of the Keweenawan, and also by the fact that the diabase which 
in the Stillwater well is penetrated at a depth of 717 feet is pro- 
nounced Keweenawan. Until the age of the whole series is settled 
beyond question, however, the rocks will be called Algonkian (?). 
They carry little water, and drilling should always be discontinued 
when they are encountered. This fact was recognized twenty-five 
years ago by W. E. Swan, an experienced driller in the region. 



GEOLOGIC FOBMATIONS. 49 

ALGONKIAN SYSTEM. 

Sioux quartzite. — This formation is exposed in a number of out- 
crops and has been encountered in many wells in southwestern 
Minnesota and adjacent parts of South Dakota and Iowa. Its dis- 
tribution in this State is shown on Plates III and IV. Although it 
consists essentially of thoroughly indurated red quartzite, it contains 
a few thin layers of pipestone and also some portions which are but 
slightly cemented and quite porous. A small amount of water is con- 
tained in the less indurated beds and in the joints which break up 
the rock, and in localities where there is no other available source of 
water the formation will yield supplies which, though not copious, 
are adequate for most purposes. 

AECHEAN SYSTEM. 

Rocks consisting of dark-colored hornblende or biotite schists, 
probably belonging to the Keewatin series, have been reached in a 
number of the deeper wells in the northwestern part of the district 
under investigation. They are presumed to be a southwestward 
extension of rocks which appear at the surface in eastern Minnesota 
along Kettle River and at different places on the north side of the 
Mesabi iron range. Gneisses and granite gneisses are found in more 
or less continuous exposures from New Ulm to Ortonville along 
Minnesota River, and in several outcrops upon the high prairie 
region to the southwest, in Brown, Lyon, and Yellow Medicine 
counties. They have been reached in a large number of wells on both 
sides of the river and no doubt underlie all the other formations. 
The occurrence of the Archean rocks is shown on Plate III. 

In most parts of southwestern Minnesota, where the Archean rocks 
are covered by Cretaceous deposits, they are profoundly decomposed. 
The decomposition product, as brought up by the drillers, usually 
consists of white clay at the top, succeeded downward by decom- 
posed granite of a red, yellow, light-gray, or greenish color. In a 
number of wells the white clay exceeds 50 feet in thickness, though 
it is generally much thinner. It is without a doubt a product of 
the decay of granitic rocks. In some places it contains embedded 
grains of quartz and is clearly residual, but in others its freedom 
from grit, its great thickness, or the fact that it includes interbedded 
layers of sand indicates that it has been transported and redeposited 
by water. If, as is probable, it was so redeposited when the Cre- 
taceous seas invaded the region,' the white clay is in part a basal 
Cretaceous formation. In this report it is included with the Archean 
except where it is evidently Cretaceous. 

Where the white clay or ordinary granitic residuum is encountered 
there is little probability of procuring water, though some successful 
wells stop in these materials. The solid rock is virtually destitute of 
available water. . 

60920°— wsp 256—11 4 



50 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 
By O. E. Meinzer. 
INTRODUCTION. 

A flowing well appeals strongly to the imagination, and hence in 
southern Minnesota, as in other parts of the country, there is a 
great tendency for the people to be too optimistic in regard to artesian 
prospects and too ready to involve themselves in heavy expendi- 
tures for drilling, with the hope of securing a flow. In nearly every 
village there are those who believe flowing wells could be obtained 
if drilling were carried deep enough, but perhaps in a majority of 
cases such a belief is based upon the most meager and imperfect 
knowledge of the conditions, and the wish alone is father to the 
thought. It is important that the people should understand that a 
flowing well is not an accident, but rather the resultant of a definite 
combination of structural and topographic conditions, which can to 
a certain extent be determined by those who have made a study of 
the subject. It is important for them to realize that random drilling 
without expert advice is a most costly and unwise method of pros- 
pecting for artesian water. 

In southern Minnesota flows are obtained from three distinct 
sources. These are the glacial drift and the Cretaceous and Paleo- 
zoic rock systems. Although the same general hydraulic principles 
are involved in all three, yet their structural and topographic rela- 
tions are so diverse that the artesian conditions are manifested some- 
what differently, and intelligent prospecting requires a knowledge 
of the peculiarities of each. 

These three geologic divisions are widely distributed and the 
water which they contain is generally under considerable pressure. 
Nevertheless, it is only in small districts where the conditions are 
peculiarly favorable that the pressure is great enough to lift the 
water above the surface. In other words, districts in which flows 
can be secured are the exception and not the rule. Out of the 28,000 
square miles included in this report, the water from some formation 
will rise above the surface in approximately 700 square miles, or 
about 2\ per cent of the total area. 

GLACIAL DRIFT. 

CONDITIONS. 

The structure of the drift is unlike that of any other deposit, and 
the resulting artesian conditions are likewise peculiar. The surficial 
layer, consisting of clay with an admixture of gravel, is loosely 
aggregated and absorbs a certain amount of water, which percolates 
through it slowly. Since most of the drift-covered region is a gently 



AETESIAN CONDITIONS. 51 

undulating plain with but slight relief and poor drainage, the rain 
which falls upon it flows off but sluggishly, and therefore has ample 
opportunity to penetrate the semiporous surface layer. Hence it 
follows that the ground-water table is normally near the surface, 
and in swampy districts virtually coincides with the land surface. 
In the higher morainic belts and in proximity to erosion channels, 
the depths of water are somewhat greater, but so imperfect is the 
porosity that the water table follows the topographic irregularities 
closely. 

The greater part of the drift at some distance below the surface layer 
is quite compact and appears to be entirely impervious, but there are 
interbedded with it coarse layers of sand and gravel which are nearly 
always saturated with water under artesian pressure. When a well 
is sunk into the drift the drill passes through relatively dry and im- 
pervious clay until a sand and gravel horizon is encountered. Then 
the confined water promptly rises through the boring, filling it to a 
level at which equilibrium is established. The water column in the 
well then balances the pressure in the water-bearing beds. If water 
is pumped out this balance is disturbed and a new supply at once 
flows into the well.- If, on the other hand, water should be poured 
into the tubing, the column in the well would then overbalance the 
artesian pressure and water would be forced out at the bottom of the 
tube until the normal level was again reached. The rate at which 
this adjustment takes place depends upon the porosity of the sand 
or gravel and is a measure of the rate at which water will be yielded. 
It follows that a crude estimate of the water that may be procured 
from a well is obtained by pouring water into it, and this method of 
testing is occasionally resorted to by drillers. 

On the higher belts of glacial moraine the water level in the wells 
may stand at considerable depths below the land surface, even 
though it rises above the horizon at which it is tapped, but on the 
ordinary drift plain it usually stands near the surface of the land, 
and in small tracts depressed below the general level of the plain 
it may flow at elevations slightly above the land surface. Never- 
theless, the absolute elevation of the water surface in wells is invari- 
ably greatest in regions of greatest elevation and is lowest in the 
depressed areas, even though here it is nearer the land surface or 
may even rise above it. 

It is probable that the most effective catchment areas- are the 
regions of high morainic belts. Because of the large percentage of 
porous material in these moraines their absorption of the rainfall is 
more complete than that of the area of true till, which in part forms 
the surface of the plains. The water that is absorbed by the moraines 
percolates slowly outward from them beneath the bowlder clay of 
the drift plains, thereby establishing artesian conditions. Where 



52 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

these artesian conditions exist the ground moraine or till acts as a 
confining bed and appears to be fairly impervious. Nevertheless, 
there is doubtless some leakage through it, and this leakage may be 
one of the reasons why artesian basins within the drift are so mod- 
erate in extent. In this connection it is interesting to review a prin- 
ciple stated by Professor Chamberlin in 1885.° At points where 
water from the lower beds rises just to the level of the surface ground- 
water table the deeper water and the surficial water are in equilib- 
rium, and even though the bed that separates them is not entirely 
impervious there is no tendency for the water to pass in either direc- 
tion. In localities where the water from the deeper beds rises to a 
level below that of the surficial ground-water table the two bodies 
of water are not in equilibrium, and if the material separating them 
is at any point not entirely impervious water will pass from the 
surficial layer into the deeper beds. This relation is the general one 
throughout southern Minnesota. It exists not only in the morainic 
belts, but over the greater part of the plains. Where, in contrast to 
this condition, the waters from the deeper beds tend to rise above the 
level of the ground-water table, the resultant pressure is upward 
through the confining layer, and if the latter is not perfectly imper- 
vious there will be leakage out of the deeper beds, and as a conse- 
quence a diminution of the artesian pressure. The greater the dif- 
ference between the ground-water level and the level to which the 
artesian water rises the greater is this pressure, and the more rapidly 
will leakage take place. This condition is found only in limited areas 
within the low-lying districts, and the difference in the two levels is 
rarely great. It is only in exceptional situations where the ground- 
water table is nearly at the surface, as in specially depressed locali- 
ties, or where it is suddenly deflected downward, as along the margins 
of postglacial valleys, that the waters from the deeper beds will rise 
above the surface. In rare instances the drift gives rise to great 
pressure, but this is due to unusual features and need not be considered 
in discussing general conditions. 

Confining layers of till are not sufficiently impenetrable to pre- 
vent the escape of waters upward from the confined beds when 
the pressure is outward. Neither can they prevent the passage of 
water downward into these beds in localities where the balance of 
pressure favors movement in this direction. It is therefore proper 
to regard the entire region in which the water from confined beds 
fails to rise to the surficial ground-water level as a catchment or 
intake area. The material of the moraines and their relations to the 
flowing districts indicate that they play a most important part in 
supplying the deeper beds, but the remaining portions of the intake 
area, as just defined, probably also exert an appreciable influence. 

a Chamberlin, T. C, Requisite and qualifying conditions of artesian wells: Fifth Annual Report U. S. 
Geol. Survey, 18S5, pp. 139-140. 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 53 

In order to maintain artesian conditions it is probably not essen- 
tial that the confining layer should be absolutely impervious, but 
only that it should be less pervious than the water-bearing body 
below. Leakage upward and outward does not preclude the main- 
tenance of artesian pressure, provided the supply to the bed that 
acts as a reservoir be more rapid than the leakage outward from 
the bed. 

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. 

An understanding of the conditions that have been discussed should 
assist in judging of the prospects of securing flows in any given local- 
ity. If the till does not form an ideal confining stratum because 
leakage may take place through it, it is evident that general eleva- 
tion of surface will have less to do with the occurrence of flowing- 
well areas than local topography, because the till sheet is probably 
not capable of resisting high pressures and transmitting them for long 
distances. Hence a large area of relatively low land, even though 
it is probable that ground waters percolate toward it from an adja- 
cent area of relatively high land, is not likely to be a general flowing- 
well area. On the other hand, a valley or other limited local depres- 
sion, especially if its borders are rather abrupt, is a favorable locality 
for securing flowing wells, because pressures do not have to be trans- 
mitted great distances to such an area, and hence are not likely to 
be lost through leakage. If, in addition to this favorable local topo- 
graphic condition, the till contains an abundance of the lenticular 
masses of sand and gravel which form the most favorable deep-seated 
reservoirs for the storage of water under pressure, the combination of 
conditions is ideal, and exploration is likely to develop flowing wells. 

Illustrations of favorable topographic conditions will be found on 
Plate IV. It is evident that the water is likely to rise near to the 
surface at the foot of a relatively abrupt slope. If this slope occurs 
at the base of a steep morainic belt, the conditions may be regarded 
as exceptionally favorable. Exactly this situation gives rise to the 
flowing wells in the northeastern corner of Nobles County. There 
a high area of moraine rises toward the west, while the general 
surface descends gently toward the east. Into this gently sloping 
surface the valley of Jack Creek has been incised, and here a flow- 
ing-well area has been developed. Farther east the prairie, by a 
gentle grade, is brought to a level considerably below that of the 
valley of Jack Creek, but the water, nevertheless, will not rise to the 
prairie surface. It is probable that the pressure is dissipated by 
leakage before it reaches these points more distant from its source. 

Although postglacial valleys cut a short distance into the drift are 
the most favorable topographic features for the production of flows, 
yet if these valleys are cut through the confining beds artesian con- 
ditions are thereby destroyed and flows will not be secured. 



54 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

A number of small tracts in which flows may be found in the drift 
are indicated on Plate IV. In general, no attempt has been made to 
show the localities that are regarded as favorable for flowing wells 
except where developments have proved that these conditions actually 
obtain. Hence there can be little doubt that water will rise above 
the surface in small districts not indicated upon the map. Although 
sufficiently complete data do not exist for an accurate estimate of the 
area over which flows from the drift may be secured, such crude esti- 
mates as are possible appear to indicate that the flowing-well areas 
constitute less than 1 per cent of the total drift-covered surface. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

The Cretaceous formations present a structure and resulting arte- 
sian system that are in sharp contrast to those of the drift. The 
water-bearing members are without doubt far more continuous over 
wide areas and are better adapted to transmit water for long dis- 
tances, while the confining beds are very much more competent. 
The former consist of sandstone strata; the latter of a great thickness 
of shale which is so fine-grained and homogeneous that it is highly 
impermeable, so soft and plastic that all fissures are sealed even under 
moderate pressure, and so widespread and continuous, except near 
its margins, that there are few interruptions where water might 
escape. The Cretaceous, in its typical development, fulfills more 
nearly the ideal conditions than do most artesian systems. 

There are two areas in southern Minnesota in which this system 
gives rise to flows (1) in the valley occupied by Bigstone Lake 
and (2) along the foot of the coteau in Lyon and Redwood counties. 
The first is not extensive; the second covers approximately 200 
square miles and contains a large number of flowing wells. The first 
shows no unusual features, but the second presents several problems, 
which will be briefly discussed. Both of the areas are shown in 
Plate IV, and they are described in detail in the reports on Bigstone, 
Lyon, and Redwood counties. In the Red River valley, directly 
north of the region included in this paper, flows are obtained over a 
wide territory. 

The Cretaceous formations extend from the western mountains, 
across the Dakotas, into Minnesota. In the high altitudes of the 
mountains the sandstones outcrop, thus forming ideal catchment 
areas. Eastward they pass beneath thick shale beds, and as they 
reach lower altitudes their water comes to be confined under great 
artesian pressure. The so-called James River valley is a broad belt in 
the eastern part of North and South Dakota, sufficiently depressed 
so that the Cretaceous water will rise far above the surface, and is an 
artesian basin of unusual interest, made possible only by the great 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 55 

efficiency of the shale beds in preventing leakage. The artesian 
supply is there being squandered on a grand scale. East of the 
James River valley lies the Coteau des Prairies with an elevation too 
high for flowing wells. There, indeed, as far as present knowledge 
is concerned, the entire Cretaceous system is virtually lost; but it 
reappears beneath a thin coating of drift under the low plain on the 
east side of the coteau, where it again gives rise to flows. 

But in one respect the artesian conditions are here essentially dif- 
ferent from those on the west side of the coteau, for the flowing area 
is only 6 or 8 miles in width, and is bounded on the east not by higher 
ground but by a gently descending plain. The topographic features 
are similar to those just described for the drift artesian area in north- 
eastern Nobles County. The structure is, however, believed to be 
entirely different. The principal sandstone strata, and with them 
the artesian conditions, are here terminated by the impervious 
Archean rocks, against which they abut (fig. 3), and in addition to 
this the confining beds become less perfect at the margin and a certain 




Sandstone 



-tT^^T^o-'i- Arcbean ~'~ " 



Figure 3.— Diagrammatic section of the Cretaceous, showing (1) the conditions that limit the flowing 
area and (2) the supposed relations of hard and soft waters. H, Main artesian hard-water zone; S, prin- 
cipal soft-water zone; hh', area in which hard water predominates; ss', area in which soft water pre- 
dominates. 

amount of leakage and consequent lowering of the head results. In 
the report on Lyon County are presented some of the data upon 
which these conclusions are based. 

When the first deep wells were drilled in the city of Marshall, the 
artesian pressure was found to be great, in some instances sufficient 
to lift the water 200 feet above the surface. Since that time (about 
15 years) it has quite steadily diminished. (See specific data in the 
report on Lyon County.) Some of this decrease may be attributed 
to local interference, but apparently the explanation lies in part in 
the general lowering of the head. Although there are now many 
flowing wells, the total draft on the artesian beds is not large, and if 
this draft is the cause of the change in pressure, either the capacity 
of the water-bearing beds is very small or their conductivity is poor. 
Whatever may be the ulterior factors involved, it would certainly 
be prudent for the people of Lyon and Redwood counties to conserve 
their artesian supply more carefully in the future by preventing the 
waste that has heretofore been permitted. 



56 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

PALEOZOIC ROCKS. 

The Paleozoic rocks form an artesian system which differs from 
each of the other two. They consist of a succession of beds of sand- 
stone, shale, and limestone, lying in a sort of pre-Paleozoic basin, and 
dipping gently from the periphery toward the interior of this basin. 
The sandstones form the principal water-bearing members and the 
shales constitute the most competent confining layers, while the 
limestones and overlying drift perform both functions to some extent. 
The alternation of relatively porous, with relatively impervious beds 
gives a succession of more or less independent artesian horizons, but 
the confining layers are far less competent than those of the Cre- 
taceous, and the intake areas are less definitely limited. In these 
respects the Paleozoic artesian system therefore stands intermediate 
between the other two. 

It is, however, in its topographic relations that the Paleozoic is 
most distinctive. It lies in southeastern Minnesota, and hence the 
surface consists essentially of a plateau dissected by deep-stream 
valleys, which in very large measure control the head. If the plateau 
were not dissected, the water from all horizons would come relatively 
near the surface, but would probably nowhere be lifted above it. 
But the deep valleys, which cut through successive formations, allow 
leakage from the water-bearing beds at many points, giving rise to 
countless springs, but destroying artesian conditions and greatly 
lowering the head of the water on the uplands. At the same time 
they locally bring the surface below the level to which the water 
beneath the undissected confining beds will rise, thus making possible 
the flowing wells obtained along the principal streams. 

The total area in southern Minnesota in which the water from 
Paleozoic formations will rise above the surface has been roughly 
estimated at 300 square miles. This area is outlined on the map 
(PI. IV). It will be seen that the flowing wells are confined to the 
valleys, and the general fact needs to be here emphasized that flows 
can not be obtained on the uplands. 

The relations of the head to the depth are similar to those in the 
drift. On the uplands the water from the shallow sources rises 
nearest the surface, and the head is generally progressively lower as 
deeper horizons are reached. On the other hand, in the valleys 
where artesian prospects exist there is a tendency for the pressure to 
increase slightly with the depth. 

Wherever the Paleozoic beds have been drawn upon to any large 
extent, the pressure, which in most places was originally not great, 
has gradually diminished, owing perhaps chiefly to interference and 
local depletion. To obtain the greatest benefit from the prevailing 
artesian conditions it is necessary here, as in the Cretaceous basin, to 
stop the waste that has hitherto been tolerated. 



MINERAL QUALITY. 



57 



SIOTTX QUARTZITE AND GLACIAL DRIFT. 

Small flowing areas may result where bodies of Sioux quartzite 
rise above the general level of a region. In such a place the catch- 
ment area is furnished by the quartzite ridge or plateau, and the 
confining bed is the impervious bowlder clay that laps up on the 
quartzite and extends as a continuous sheet to an altitude consid- 
erably higher than the surrounding surface. A part of the water that 
falls as rain sinks into the joints and less firmly cemented portions of 
the rock, through which it is transmitted to sandy beds of the drift 
that are in contact with the quartzite but lie below the confining layer 
of clay. A part of the water may also find its way to the deeper por- 
tions of the drift through sandy deposits between the quartzite and 
the bowlder clay without entering the former. Beneath the con- 
fining layer the water accumulates head, and on the low ground near 




£=C-r---- Drift 



Figure 4. — Ideal section showing the structure which gives rise to flowing wells near the margins of 

quartzite plateaus. 

the quartzite plateau it may be under sufficient pressure to rise to the 
surface when the confining layer is punctured. These relations are 
illustrated in figure 4. One of the most interesting flowing areas of 
this type is the one east of Hard wick (see the report on Rock County), 
but others are found in similar locations. 

MINERAL QUALITY OF THE UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 

SOURCES OF THE DATA. 

In all 484 mineral analyses of water from the various geologic 
formations in southern Minnesota appear in this paper, those from 
each county being arranged according to formations in a table at the 
end of the corresponding county report. In connection with the 
tables are given the depth and diameter and the owner and location 
of the well or other source from which each sample was taken, also 
the date, analysts, etc. Generally the date refers to the time the 



58 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

sample was collected, but in some cases it is the date of the comple- 
tion of the analysis. 

The analyses were obtained from various sources: (1) For some 
years past Prof. C. W. Hall has collected chemical data from railway 
companies, water-softening companies, chemists, etc., and the 
analyses thus secured constitute a large proportion of those given in 
this report. Acknowledgment is due to the following companies and 
individuals for furnishing data: Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 
Railway Company, G. N. Prentiss, chemist; Chicago and Northwest- 
ern Railway Company, G. M. Davidson, engineer of tests; Minneap- 
olis and St. Louis Railroad Company; Dearborn Drug and Chemical 
Works of Chicago; Dr. C. W. Drew, chemist, Minneapolis; A. D. 
Meeds, chemist, Minneapolis Board of Health; Prof. C. F. Sidener, 
University of Minnesota; Prof. E. E. Nicholson, University of Min- 
nesota; St. Paul Board of Water Commissioners; and others. (2) 
During the field work conducted by M. L. Fuller in 1906 a number 
of samples were collected from the southeastern part of Minnesota, 
some of which were analyzed by H. S. Spaulding and some by W. S. 
Hendrixson, Iowa College, Grinnell, Iowa. (3) In 1907 the Minne- 
sota State Board of Health cooperated with the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, and mineral analyses were made in their laboratories 
by their chemist, H. A. Whittaker, of 1.00 samples collected by O. E. 
Meinzer. 

Nearly all the analyses collected by Professor Hall were reported 
as hypothetical combinations and were given in grains per gallon. 
In order to have them agree in form with those made for the Survey, 
they were recalculated so that the amount of each element or radicle 
is shown, and the quantities are expressed in parts per million parts of 
water. All carbonates were recalculated as bicarbonates (HC0 3 ). 
It may be well to call attention to the circumstance that the total 
solids are in every case less than the sum of the constitutents given, 
which results from the fact that the bicarbonates, if they exist in 
solution, break down in whole or in part to form normal carbonates, 
and hence are only in part converted into solid matter. This can be 
made clearer by the following illustration, in which two bicarbonate 
radicles and an atom of calcium come out of solution: 

Calcium 4-Bicarbonate radicle — ^Calcium carbonate-f- Water 4-Carbon dioxide. 



Ca 4 


2HC0 3 


» CaC0 3 


+ H 2 + 


co 2 




Solution — 


> Solid 


+ Liquid 4- 


Gas 


Relative 










weights : 


162 - 


> 100 


+ 18 + 


44 



INTERPRETATION OF THE ANALYSES. 

Underground water dissolves mineral substances from the rocks 
through which it percolates; and the different ingredients thus held 



■ MINEBAL QUALITY. 59 

in dilute solution produce noteworthy chemical and physical effects 
in industrial and domestic processes and in the human body. It is 
therefore of great moment to know the amounts and relative propor- 
tions of these ingredients. It is not feasible to discuss here this 
entire subject, with its numerous ramifications, but a few of the most 
important effects of the substances commonly found in solution will 
be briefly outlined. In what is said about the interpretation of the 
analyses, a recent article by Herman Stabler is closely followed. 

SOAP-CONSUMING POWER. 

For toilet and laundry purposes it is desirable to have water that 
will readily form a lather when soap is used. Calcium, magnesium, 
iron, and aluminum in solution have the capacity of combining with 
soap and thereby destroying its power to produce a lather. As iron 
and aluminum are usually present only in small amounts, the soap- 
consuming power can be judged approximately by considering merely 
the content of calcium and magnesium. The smaller the quantity 
of these two elements the better is the water for toilet and laundry 
purposes. It must be remembered, however, that one part of mag- 
nesium consumes as much soap as 1.6 parts of calcium.. Soft water 
is water that lathers readily, and hard water is water that has the 
power of consuming much soap before it will form a lather. The 
amount of soap necessary to produce a lather in a given quantity of 
water is a measure of the hardness. Boiling the water decreases its 
soap-consuming capacity by causing the precipitation of part of the 
calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum. 

FORMATION OF SCALE. 

When water is heated and concentrated in boilers, much of the 
dissolved substance is precipitated, forming scale and sludge, which 
diminish the heating power of the fuel and may eventually ruin the 
boiler. Suspended matter, silica, and compounds of calcium, mag- 
nesium, iron, and aluminum are scale-forming materials; and among 
these calcium and magnesium are usually present in much the largest 
quantities. Generally the calcium occurs in the scale as either car- 
bonate or sulphate, and the magnesium, iron, and aluminum as oxides. 
Since there is some uncertainty as to the compounds that will be 
formed, it is not possible to calculate, from a given analysis, the 
exact amount of scale that will be deposited, but the following for- 
mulas, computed by Stabler, will give approximately the amount 
and character of it. 

a The mineral analysis of water for industrial purposes and its interpretation by the engineer: Eng. 
News, vol. 00, 1908, p. 355. 



60 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

A = 0.0246 Ca + 0.0138 Mg + 0.0107 Fe + 0.0157 A1 + 0.00833 Cm + 

0.00833 Sm. 

B = 0.00833 SiO 2 + 0.0138 Mg+ (0.016 CI + 0.0118 3O 4 -0.0246 Na- 

0.0145 K). 

The symbols in these formulas represent amounts as follows: In 
pounds per 1,000 gallons of water — A, the amount of scale; B, the 
amount of the hard-scale forming ingredients in the scale. In parts 
per million — Sm, the amount of suspended matter; Cm, the amount 
of colloidal matter (silica plus oxides of iron and aluminum) ; Si0 2 , 
silica; Fe, iron; Al, aluminum; Ca, calcium; Mg, magnesium; Na, 
sodium; K, potassium; S0 4 , sulphates; CI, chlorides. 

It is sometimes uncertain whether iron and aluminum are in solu- 
tion or in colloidal state, but little error will be introduced by assum- 
ing that Sm equals silica only. In applying the first formula to 
the analyses in this report, the results will not be greatly in error if 
only the calcium and magnesium terms are computed. Boiler scale 
varies in hardness with the composition of the water. The principal 
precipitates that make the scale hard are calcium sulphate and mag- 
nesium oxide. Silica also increases the hardness. The greater the 
value of B in comparison with the value of A, therefore, the harder 
will be the scale. 

When water is heated nearly to boiling under atmospheric pressure, 
as in an open feed-water heater, much of the calcium and other sub- 
stances that form soft scale are precipitated, but the hard-scale 
forming ingredients are left in solution. The result of such prelimi- 
nary treatment, therefore, is to reduce the total amount of scale 
formed in boilers, but to increase its hardness. 

FOAMING. 

Foaming in boilers is the forming of bubbles that do not readily 
break, and hence are liable to carry water out "with the steam, thus 
interfering with the proper action of the engine. Dissolved sub- 
stances increase the tendency to foam; but as sodium and potassium 
compounds are much more soluble than those of the other bases, 
and therefore remain in solution in the boiler water after the other 
bases have been precipitated, the proportion of sodium and potas- 
sium in solution is enormously increased. Therefore, the length of 
time a boiler can be used without blowing off the concentrated water 
can be measured by the amount of sodium and potassium in the boiler 
feed. The greater the amount of these two elements the greater will 
be the tendency for the water to foam. 

CORROSION. 

Water that will corrode iron is, of course, deleterious wherever that 
metal is used. Under the high temperatures in boilers the magnesium, 



MINERAL. QUALITY. 



61 



iron, and aluminum may be precipitated as hydrates and the acid 
radicles thus left in solution may cause corrosion. The carbonate 
and bicarbonate radicles to some extent counteract this tendency, 
while the danger of corrosion increases with the amounts of the sul- 
phate radicle and chlorine. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 



ALLUVIUM AND DRIFT WATERS COMPARED. 

The surface deposits vary widely in composition, porosity, etc., 
and there are correspondingly great differences in the chemical 
character of the waters. The alluvium water is generally less min- 
eralized than that from the glacial drift, as is shown by the following 
table compiled by M. L. Fuller. All the samples whose analyses 
appear in this table were collected in the eastern portion of the State, 
but similar results would be shown if waters of these two sources 
were compared in other parts of the area under consideration. 

Relative mineralization of waters from glacial drift and alluvium. 
[Parts per million.] 



Depth and formation. 


Num- 
ber of 
analy- 
ses! 


Cal- 
cium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 

(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO s ). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO*). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 


to 25 feet: 

Drift 


17 
9 

17 
13 

9 
3 


90 
81 

102 
69 

112 
71 


32 
25 

35 

27 

40 
25 


23 
21 

22 

7 

14 
6 


348 
341 

399 
314 

509 
279 


64 
44 

99 
29 

65 
23 


26 
14 

12 
63 

6 

4 


444 


Alluvium 

25 to 50 feet: 

Drift.. 

Alluvium 

50 to 100 feet: 

Drift 


406 

500 
312 

514 




299 







It will be seen that the two groups do not differ greatly in the 
relative proportions of the different constituents, but for virtually 
each constituent and for each range of depth given, the average 
amount in the alluvium waters is somewhat less than that in the 
drift waters. This difference is especially noticeable in the deeper 
wells. 

DECREASE IN MINERALIZATION FROM WEST TO EAST. 

A marked difference exists between the mineralization of the 
waters from the surface deposits (glacial drift, alluvium, etc.) in the 
western and eastern parts of southern Minnesota. This is shown by 
the following table, in which all the analyses available were averaged 
for each county, except that in a few cases where the number was 
small several counties were taken together. A total of 229 analyses 
enter into the tabulation. 



62 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Mineral content of waters from the glacial drift and other surface deposits in southern 
Minnesota, by counties, showing decrease from west to east. 



[Parts per million.] 
NORTHERNMOST TIER OF COUNTIES. 



Counties. 


Num- 
1 er of 
analy- 
ses. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Magnesi- 
um (Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 

(Na+K). 


Bicarbon- 
ate radicle 
(HC0 3 ). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO,). 


Chlorine Total 
(CI). solids. 


Bigstone 

Chippewa and Swift 


9 
9 
3 

4 
8 
16 


196 
135 
126 
100 
73 
53 
74 


113 
45 
49 
29 
29 
18 
28 


178 
80 
26 
18 
S3 
10 

8 


483 
506 
418 
371 
415 
246 
358 


873 
125 
108 
83 
29 
16 
15 


27 
92 
96 
14 
2 
7 
5 


1,646 

747 
632 


Meeker 

Wright...: 


467 
401 


Hennepin and Anoka 

Ramsey and Washington. 


252 
345 



SECOND TIER OF COUNTIES FROM THE NORTH. 





4 

14 
18 
10 


257 
99 
96 

98 


108 
49 
38 
33 


83 
87 
48 
10 


496 
499 
516 
375 


541 
157 
52 
74 


212 
37 
16 

10 


1,526 
706 




McLeod 

Carver, Scott, and Dakota 


522 
428 



THIRD TIER OF COUNTIES FROM THE NORTH. 



Lincoln 

Lyon 

Redwood 

Brown 

Nicollet and Lesueur. 

Rice 

Goodhue 

Wabasha 



9 


220 


67 


103 


575 


543 


12 


5 


199 


83 


163 


617 


628 


15 


6 


189 


68 


76 


582 


411 


6 


3 


174 


69 


63 


638 


307 


7 


5 


71 


30 


S4 


368 


135 


6 


7 


106 


44 


24 


410 


44 


35 


2" 


86 


23 


19 


338 


33 


9 


5 


82 


29 


12 


359 


32 


9 



1,264 
1.419 
1,067 
964 
575 
547 
366 
354 



FOURTH TIER OF COUNTIES FROM THE NORTH. 



Pipestone 


2 
12 
5 
.8 

3 
7 

9 


110 
203 
223 

167 


25 

67 
77 
53 


13 

77 
87 
60 


395 
452 
522 

559 


45 
523 
600 
291 


18 

23 

8 

4 


444 
1,145 




1.2S0 




902 


Blue Earth 




Waseca 

Steele 


107 
98 


41 
34 


28 
59 


478 
486 


75 
105 


12 
8 


507 
659 


Dodge 

Olmsted and Winona 




64 


25 


7 


298 


27 


8 


298 



FIFTH TIER OF COUNTIES FROM THE NORTH. 



Rock 


2 
6 

7 
10 
4 
3 
4 
4 
2 


124 
221 
135 
156 

96 
122 

77 
SO 
SO 


29 
77 
47 
48 
34 
34 
17 
25 
32 


46 
64 
50 
76 
44 
23 
11 
11 
15 


515 
421 
417 
459 
480 
412 
263 
365 
358 


88 
575 
270 
371 
76 
105 
63 
35 
33 


8 
35 
11 
10 

3 
30 
11 
18 
23 


584 




1,245 




742 


Martin 

Faribault 


901 
496 
520 




329 




343 


Houston •_ 


370 



The above table shows that in each tier of counties, from the west- 
ern margin of the State eastward to the Mississippi, there is a gradual 
but decided decrease in the total mineralization of the water from 
the glacial drift and other surface deposits, and that this is due to a 
decrease in the amounts of most of the important constituents. 
Thus, excluding Pipestone and Rock counties, the average content 



MINERAL QUALITY. 



63 



of calcium and magnesium is only a little over one-third as great 
in the eastern as in the western part, the average content of sodium 
and potassium is only about one-tenth as great, and in the content 
of sulphates the difference is still wider. 

The cause of this condition is not difficult to find. The glacial 
drift of the western counties is derived from the Cretaceous sediments 
which underlie the western portion of this State, as well as the region 
beyond, while the drift of the eastern counties was abraded chiefly 
from the Paleozoic formations. The marked difference between the 
Cretaceous and the Paleozoic rocks, in the amount of soluble matter 
which they contribute to the underground water, is shown later in 
this chapter. 

ANALYSES CONSIDERED ACCORDING TO PROVINCES. 

For the present purpose, southern Minnesota will be separated 
into three general provinces — southeastern, southwestern, and north- 
central. Although this is a somewhat arbitrary division of the region, 
it makes it possible to bring out important relations that can not 
otherwise be shown. Broadly speaking, it may be said that in the 
first province the glacial drift is underlain by Paleozoic formations 
and in the second by Cretaceous. The third, which lies entirely 
north of Minnesota River, is in a sense intermediate. 

The southeastern province includes the following counties : Anoka, 
Hennepin, Ramsey, Washington, Carver, Scott, Dakota, Lesueur, 
Rice, Goodhue, Wabasha, Blue Earth, Waseca, Steele, Dodge; Olm- 
sted, Winona, Faribault, Freeborn, Mower, Fillmore, and Houston. 
The ensuing table gives the composition of waters from different 
depths in the glacial drift and other surface deposits of this area. 
It was compiled by averaging all the available analyses within the 
assigned limits of depth. 

Mineral content of waters from different depths of glacial drift and other surface deposits of 
■ the southeastern province, southern Minnesota. 

[Parts per million.] 



Depth. 


Num- 
ber of 
analy- 
ses. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 


Bicarbo- 
nate radi- 
cle 
(HC0 3 ). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(S0 4 ) 


Chlorine 
(CD. 


Total 
solids. 


to 25 feet 


20 
30 
12 
18 


87 
88 
102 
81 


30 
32 
36 
30 


22 
14 
12 
46 


346 
361 
452 
375 


57 
69 
55 

78 


22 

34 

6 

31 


431 


25 to 50 feet 


418 


50 to lOOfeet 


460 


Over 100 feet 


463 







The table shows that the waters of this group are moderately 
mineralized, and that the principal constituents are calcium and 
magnesium in equilibrium with the bicarbonate radicle, the quanti- 
ties of chlorine and sulphates and of sodium and potassium being 
comparatively small. The normal amounts of chlorine are probably 



64 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



less than those in the table, because the averages are raised by includ- 
ing a number of samples believed to be polluted by sewage. The 
average water of this group consumes considerable soap, but can be 
appreciably softened by heating. In boilers it is not corrosive, 
has little tendency to foam, and forms scale that is only moderately 
hard. 

The following counties are included in the southwestern province: 
Bigstone, Lac qui Parle, Yellow Medicine, Lincoln, Lyon, Redwood, 
Brown, Pipestone, Murray, Cottonwood, Watonwan, Rock, Nobles, 
Jackson, and Martin. The table here given was compiled, like the 
previous one, by averaging all available analyses within the pre- 
scribed limits of depth from which the samples were taken: 

Mineral content of waters from different depths of glacial drift and other surface deposits of 
the southwestern province, southern Minnesota. 

[Parts per million.] 



Depth. 


Num- 
ber of 
anal} r - 
ses. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 

(Na+K). 


Bicarbo- 
nate radi- 
cle 
(HC0 3 ). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO,). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 


to 50 feet 


37 
18 
20 
13 


157 
213 
198 
235 


57 

85 
72 
78 


51 
95 
136 
125 


448 
530 
550 
523 


301 
598 
874 
074 


38 
13 
14 
17 


868 


50 to 100 feet 


1,293 


100 to 200 feet 


1,300 


Over 200 feet 


1,417 







In this province the waters from all depths are highly mineralized, 
each of the common ingredients being present in quantity. Since 
there are large amounts of calcium and magnesium, the waters are 
very hard; and since the sulphate radicle is much in excess of the 
sodium and potassium they will form hard scale in boilers. 

The following counties are included in the north-central province : 
Swift, Kandiyohi, Meeker, Wright, Chippewa, Renville, McLeod, 
Sibley, and Nicollet. The next table shows the average composition 
of the waters from different depths in the surface deposits of this 
region : 

Mineral content of waters from different depths of glacial drift and other surface deposits of 
the north-central province, southern Minnesota. 

[Parts per million.] 



Depth. 



Num- 
ber of 


Calcium 


Magne- 


analy- 
ses. 


(Ca). 


(MgJ. 


19 


135 


47 


6 


137 


49 


11 


78 


37 


18 


71 


35 



Sodium J Bicarbo- 
and po- ; nate radi- 
tassium I cle 
(Na+K). (IICOs). 



Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO,). 



Chlorine 
(CI). 



Total 
solids. 



to 50 feet... 
50 to 100 feet. 
100 to 200 feet 
Over 200 feet. 



416 
541 



513 



144 
183 
44 
55 



621 

837 



527 



A casual comparison of the three tables makes it evident that this 
group is in general intermediate in composition between the first two. 



MINERAL QUALITY. 65 

VARIATIONS WITH DEPTH. 

The table for the southeastern province shows no important vari- 
ation with depth in any of the dissolved constituents. 

In the tabulation for the southwestern province the waters within 
50 feet of the surface are on an average somewhat less highly miner- 
alized than those at greater depths, there being smaller quantities of 
calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, bicarbonates, and sul- 
phates. Inspection of the 27 analyses of waters less than 50 feet 
deep shows that this difference is due chiefly to the samples derived 
from the alluvial and outwash sands and gravels at the surface. If 
only analyses from the glacial drift proper were considered, the waters 
from a depth of less than 50 feet would be shown to have virtually 
the same mineralization as those from deeper sources. With the 
exception just noted, the composition does not appear to vary with 
the depth, the differences shown in the table being small and probably 
accidental. Thus the average composition of the 18 samples secured 
from between 50 and 100 feet is essentially the same as that of the 
13 samples from a depth of more than 200 feet. 

In the waters of the north-central province a distinct variation 
with depth is discernible. The samples from less than 100 feet below 
the surface are somewhat richer in total solids than the deeper waters, 
owing to their decidedly greater content of calcium and magnesium 
and of the sulphates. The amount of bicarbonates is practically the 
same for different depths, and, since the analyses which were aver- 
aged together differ widely in the amounts of sodium and potassium, 
it is probable that the variations shown in respect to these elements 
should be regarded as accidental. Because of the difference in the 
quantity of the alkaline-earth bases (calcium and magnesium), the 
soap-consuming power and the amount of scale deposited in boilers 
are greater in the shallow than in the deep waters; and because of 
the much larger amount of sulphates, with no corresponding differ- 
ences in the alkalis and bicarbonates, the soap-consuming power 
after heating the water is much greater, while the scale formed is 
much harder. The deep water is superior to the shallow for boiler, 
laundry, and toilet purposes. 

CHLORINE CONTENT. 

The tables show the average chlorine content to be highest in the 
waters near the surface, but this is believed to be due to the more 
frequent contamination of shallow wells. The sources of many of 
the samples included in the tables for the southwestern and north- 
central provinces were examined from a sanitary point of view, and 
bacteriological analyses were made of the waters. If all samples are 
rejected that were thrown under suspicion of pollution either by 
60920°— wsp 250— IX 5 



66 UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

inspection of the source or by the fact that they contained Bacillus 
coli, or both, those that remain show the following content of chlorine: 

Chlorine content of unpolluted waters from the glacial drift and other surface deposits. 

_ , . Number of 

Southwestern province: analyses. 

1 part per million 1 

2 parts per million 2 

3 parts per million 4 

4 parts per million 4 

5 parts per million 4 

6 parts per million 3 

7 parts per million 4 

8 parts per million 

9 parts per million 2 

10 parts per million 

Total less than 10 parts per million 24 

More than 10 parts per million 3 

North -central province: 

1 part per million 3 

2 parts per million 6 

3 parts per million 2 

4 parts per million 2 

5 parts per million 2 

6 parts per million 2 

7 parts per million 1 

8 parts per million 

9 parts per million 1 

10 parts per million 1 

Total 10 parts or less per million 20 

More than 10 parts per million 5 

In the first group, of the three analyses with more than 10 parts 
per million, one represents water from the shallow open well that 
furnishes the public supply at Mountain Lake and shows only 11 
parts; the other two represent waters from the village wells at Canby 
and Clinton. By referring to the proper county reports (Yellow Med- 
icine and Big stone), it will be seen that in both of the last-named 
wells the water is drawn from the base of the drift, from horizons 
especially close to the Cretaceous waters in the region where they 
contain the largest quantities of chlorine. In the second group two 
of the five analyses with more than 10 parts per million represent 
the waters from the village wells at Olivia and Renville and show, 
respectively, 13 and 14 parts. These are rather deep wells and extend 
virtually to the underlying Cretaceous or altered Archean, from which 
the excess of chlorine may be derived. The other three analyses 
represent waters from the city wells at Litchfield, a private well at 
Litchfield, and the village wells at Atwater and show, respectively, 
17, 35, and 35 parts per million. All three are shallow wells driven 
into surficial deposits of sand. "While there is no indication of 



MINERAL QUALITY. 



67 



pollution, it seems possible that the extra amount of chlorine comes 
originally from sewage. The evidence of the reliable analyses avail- 
able seems to be that the waters from the glacial drift and other sur- 
face deposits in these two provinces tend to contain not over 10 
parts per million of chlorine unless (1) they are mingled with water 
from another formation which bears more chlorine or (2) they receive 
chlorine through human agencies. However, the number of analyses 
is too small to allow generalization, and more extended investigation 
may develop different results. 



CONTENT OF IRON AND FIXED NITROGEN. 

Most of the iron in solution in the water is in the ferrous state, but 
whenever it comes in contact with oxygen the greater part is con- 
verted to the ferric state, in which condition it is so nearly insoluble 
that most of it is precipitated. In order to ascertain the true con- 
dition of the iron in the underground waters, it is therefore necessary 
to take the samples directly from the wells before the water has 
been aerated. Moreover, it must be derived from a drilled or driven 
well rather than from an open well of large diameter in which the 
water is reservoired and comes in contact with the atmosphere before 
it is pumped. The following table contains such samples from drilled 
and driven wells and springs as were collected with the precautions 
above prescribed, and, for purposes of comparison, the samples that 
were taken from open (bored and dug) wells. The table shows not 
only the content of iron, but also that of free ammonia and nitrates, 
in the same samples. 

Content of iron, free ammonia, and nitrates in waters from the glacial drift and other 

surface deposits. 

[Parts per million.] 



Nitrate 
radicle 
(NO.). 



Drilled and driven wells and springs 

Depth less than 50 feet 

Depth 50 to 100 feet 

Depth 100 to 200 feet 

Depth over 200 feet 

Bored and dug wells: 

Depth less than 50 feet 

Depth over 50 feet 

Driven wells— all shallow 



Number 


Total 


Free 


of 


iron 


ammonia 


analyses. 


(Fe). 


(NHs). 


9 


0.9 


0.3 


6 


3.1 


.6 


7 


2.5 


1.4 


17 


2.3 


1.8 


17 


.7 


.1 


5 


1.6 


.7 


4 


.1 


.1 



7.8 

1.0 

.0 

.1 

23.6 
4.3 
5.2 



a Springs are included with wells less than 50 feet deep, although some of them would more properly be 
classified with the deep wells. 

The table shows that the waters from drilled and driven wells of 
all depths over 50 feet contain considerable iron, but those from the 
shallow wells contain relatively little. This condition apparently 
results from the fact that in the bulk of the drift the iron and other 
substances capable of oxidation exist in a partly reduced or deoxi- 
dized state (as is shown by the dark color of the clay and sand), and 



68 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN" MINNESOTA. 



the water is consequently robbed of virtually all dissolved oxygen 
which it may once have possessed; while, on the other hand, the 
deposits near the surface are generally oxidized (as is proved by 
their yellow color), and hence have not the power of divesting the 
water of its load of atmospheric oxygen. The deeper waters there- 
fore have abundant opportunity to take into solution iron in a soluble 
ferrous condition, while near the surface this element is kept in the 
insoluble ferric state by the excess of oxygen. The driven wells 
represent more strictly surficial conditions than do springs and 
drilled wells less than 50 feet deep, and accordingly they show a 
still lower content of iron. The smaller average amounts of iron in 
the water from the bored and dug wells of equivalent depths should 
probably be attributed, at least in part, to aeration of the water 
after the latter enters the well and before it is pumped to the surface. 
Analogous to ferrous and ferric iron are the two combinations in 
which most of the fixed nitrogen in the water is found. Where 
there is a deficiency of oxygen, ammonia predominates, but in waters 
containing an abundance of oxygen the prevailing nitrogenous com- 
pounds are the nitrates. This condition is shown in the above table, 
in which in general the ammonia varies directly and the nitrate 
radicle inversely with the iron. It is possible that in water contain- 
ing ferrous iron some of the ammonia is formed by the reduction of 
nitrates after the water is pumped. The large amount of nitrates 
in the shallow bored and dug wells is probably in part caused by the 
direct introduction of decomposed organic material. 

CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS. 

TWO GROUPS OF WATER. 

The following table includes all the available analyses of waters 
derived from Cretaceous formations in southern Minnesota. They 
are arranged according to their calcium content. 

Analyses of waters from Cretaceous formations in southern Minnesota. 
[Parts per million.] 



County. 



Lyon 

Watonwan. . 

Do 

Lyon 

Cottonwood. 

Lyon 

Cottonwood. 

Lyon 

Cottonwood. 
Jackson 



No. a 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Mag- 
nesium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO,). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(S0 4 ). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


11 


329 


97 


339 


676 


1,279 


51 


9 


327 


118 


83 


512 


1,026 


4 


10 


324 


116 


146 


503 


1,121 


10 


14 


324 


99 


422 


387 


1,679 


47 


9 


287 


99 


129 


713 


759 


19 


12 


261 


75 


203 


420 


934 


40 


7 


219 


75 


150 


539 


705 


6 


13 


209 


139 


415 


716 


1,317 


30 


10 


159 


46 


348 


385 


971 


12 


8 


158 


57 


43 


459 


346 


3 



Total 
solids. 



2,449 
1,853 
1,994 
2,774 
1,677 
1,789 
1,545 
2,473 
1,797 
845 

a The numbers are those under which the analyses are given in the tables accompanying the correspond- 
ing county reports, 



MINERAL QUALITY. 69 

Analyses of waters from Cretaceous formations in southern Minnesota — Continued. 



County. 



Lyon 

Do 

Do 

Brown 

Do 

Lyon 

Redwood 

Lyon 

Cottonwood 

Redwood 

Lyon 

Bigstone 

Yellow Medicine. 

Lyon 

Bigstone 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Redwood 

Lac qui Parle 



Calcium 
(Ca.) 



139 
138 
130 
77 
71 
59 
57 
40 
37 
32 
31 
25 
23 
22 
18 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
10 



Mag- 
nesium 
(Mg.) 



Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 



182 
214 
242 
163 
144 
524 
508 
269 
512 
457 
258 
951 
251 
536 
351 
321 
337 
341 
1,021 
1,029 
423 
248 



Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCOs). 



231 
283 
296 
2SS 
270 
325 
371 
268 
2S3 
701 
242 
478 
229 
361 
527 
493 
566 
562 
400 
400 
263 
483 



Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO4). 



630 
645 
689 
223 
257 
950 
912 
291 
933 
450 
378 
.871 
137 
819 
284 
248 
252 
256 
1,167 
1,161 
709 
136 



Chlorine 
(CJ). 



18 

39 

18 

131 

104 

49 

29 

92 

13 

40 

52 

535 

215 

63 

78 

65 

67 

68 

490 

505 

23 

27 



Total 
solids. 



1,150 

1,244 

1,271 

789 

756 

1,793 

1,816 

854 

1.710 

1,339 

836 

2,662 

759 

1,663 

1,044 

931 

977 

978 

2,946 

2,959 

1,345 

697 



If all the Cretaceous analyses tabulated above are divided into 
two arbitrary groups, those showing less than 80 parts per million 
of calcium and magnesium being placed in the "soft water" group, 
and those showing a greater content of these elements being included 
in the "hard water" group, the average results will be as follows: 

Average content of soft and hard Cretaceous waters. 
[Parts per million.] 



Group. 


Number 

of 
analyses. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Mag- 
nesium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HC0 3 ). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO*). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 




17 
15 


26 
210 


10 

74 


500 
215 


414 
445 


584 
837 


146 
35 


1,486 




1,625 







The data thus presented bring out a number of very interesting 
facts. In the first place they show that the Cretaceous waters differ 
radically in their content of calcium and magnesium, the elements 
which give hardness to the waters. The range of calcium, as shown 
in the large table, is between 10 and 329 parts per million, and the 
range in magnesium between 7 and 97 parts. Although there are 
some analyses that show intermediate amounts of these elements, 
there appears to be a tendency for the Cretaceous waters to be either 
rather soft or very hard. 

It will be observed that the total amount of solids dissolved in all 
the Cretaceous waters is great. Of the 32 analyses given above, the 
range is between 697 and 2,959 parts per million, and the average is 
1,560 parts. It will further be noted that the average of total solids 
is nearly the same for the two groups (that is, the hard and the soft), 



70 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

but that the substances which make up the totals occur in very 
different proportions. 

All the Cretaceous waters are rich in the alkalies (sodium and 
potassium), but the soft waters are much richer than the hard, the 
average content in the former group being 500 parts per million, 
while in the latter it is only 215. It should here be explained that 
among the latter, No. 9 in Watonwan County and No. 8 in Jackson 
County, which show less sodium and potassium than the others, 
probably represent Cretaceous water diluted by water from the drift. 

All Cretaceous waters contain an abundance of sulphates, and in 
many the quantity is excessive; but the average amount is greater 
in the hard waters than in the soft, being 837 parts per million in 
the former and 584 in the latter. While the large table shows that 
there is a wide range in the sulphate content within each of the two 
groups, it also seems to show that the averages are not entirely 
accidental, but that there is a tendency for the waters with much 
calcium and magnesium to have especially large amounts of sulphates. 

Virtually all the Cretaceous waters are rich in chlorine. Only four 
analyses in the above tables show 10 or less parts per million, and 
these represent waters which, from their known geologic relations, 
may well be derived in part from the glacial drift. Nearly all the 
waters whose analyses are given above come from deep drilled wells, 
and in very few of them is it probable that the chlorine content has 
been appreciably augmented by pollution. The average chlorine for 
the soft waters is much greater than that for the hard, and although 
there are great variations in both groups it appears evident that 
these averages represent real tendencies. Indeed, all the distinctly 
saline waters are soft. 

The average content of combined carbonic acid (represented by 
the bicarbonate radicle) is only moderate, and it is nearly the same 
in the two groups; furthermore, the range among the individual 
analyses is relatively small. 

In general, two distinct waters of different chemical composition 
seem to occur; calcium, magnesium, and the sulphate radicle pre- 
dominate in one water over the alkalies and chlorine; sodium, 
potassium, and sulphates, with moderately large amounts of chlorine, 
predominate in the other over the alkaline-earth bases. The differ- 
ences are presented graphically by the continuous lines in figure 5. 
The first water is extremely hard and forms a great amount of hard 
scale in boilers; moreover it is corrosive and readily causes foaming. 
The second is distinctly softer and much better for laundry and toilet 
purposes, but it is likely to cause serious foaming, especially in loco- 
motive boilers. The first type is better for irrigation than the second. 

The amounts of iron and nitrogen and their relations to each 
other are indicated by the following table. Only such samples are 



MINERAL QUALITY. 



71 



included as were collected with the precautions prescribed for the 
waters from the surface deposits. 

Content of iron, free ammonia, and nitrates in the Cretaceous waters, southern Minnesota. 

[Parts per million.] 



Group. 


Number of 
analyses. 


Total iron 
(Fe). 


Free 
ammonia 
(NH 3 ). 


Nitrate 
radicle 

(N0 3 ). 




4 
14 


2.5 

.5 


2.1 
2.0 


0.1 




.0 







The hard Cretaceous water, like the deep drift water, is rich in 
iron and ammonia and is virtually devoid of nitrates. As in the 
case of the drift, this is probably" to be explained by the deficiency 
of oxj^gen. The soft water is like the hard in containing much 
ammonia and essentially no nitrates, but it stands in sharp contrast 

Parts per million 











Soft-water av 


srage 








\ ' V 

\\ \ v 

\\ \ " 
\ v \ 


\ 






/ 




\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 


\>''' 


*' 








/\ 




/' / 


\x 










<J»\V 








y-^/f 


1° 




Vo ^ 


% 




\' 


ro 


V v 


' 


/•*■ 


1 ^* 




v ? 






\v 






\ / 


s'~ 


s'\ 




\ 

\ 


\ N 






\ 


/ ^ 


\ / Ik" 










X 





Hard-water average 
Figure 5. — Diagram showing the relations of hard and soft Cretaceous waters. 

to the hard water in containing only small quantities of iron. In 
view of the geologic relations and the evidence given by the nitrogen, 
it can not be inferred that the slight amount of iron is here due to 
the greater abundance of oxygen. Whatever may be the explana- 
tion, it is evident that the iron content varies directly with that of 
calcium and magnesium. Although only four analyses of hard water 
enter into the above table, these are known to be typical of the group 
so far as iron is concerned. 

Some samples of soft water are charged with a gas, the character 
of which was not investigated. When the water is brought to the 
surface it effervesces slightly. 

GEOGRAPHIC AND STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS OE THE TWO GROUPS. 

The soft water predominates in the northern part of the Cre- 
taceous area and the hard water in the southern. This is shown on 
the map (PI. IV). The facts presented in the reports on Lyon and 



72 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



adjoining counties and the sections given in Plate XII make it 
evident also that in the same locality certain strata yield hard water 
and others soft. At Marshall the principal soft-water zone is about 
250 feet below the surface, and the principal hard-water zone about 
400 feet, and this stratigraphic relation appears to exist at a number 
of other points. By reference to Plate IV it will be seen that in the 
region in question the area in which Cretaceous deposits are thin 
and the area in which soft Cretaceous water predominates are roughly 
coextensive; and, likewise, the area in which the Cretaceous deposits 
are thick and contain reliable water-bearing beds and the area in 
which hard water predominates are roughly coextensive. It was 
explained in the chapter on artesian conditions that the lowest 
water-bearing beds of the Cretaceous (those which give rise to most 
of the flows) are terminated toward the northeast by the impervious 
granitic rocks which rise nearer the surface in this region. Appar- 
ently the hard-water zones are thus chiefly cut off, while the higher 
and much weaker soft-water zones extend northward and eastward 
above the granite. These supposed relations are shown diagrammat- 
ically in figure 3 (p. 55), in which H and S represent, respectively, the 
principal hard and soft water zones, while Tih r and ss' represent, 
respectively, the areas in which hard and soft waters are predominant. 

While various lines of evidence indicate that the principal soft- 
water zone lies at a higher level than the principal hard-water zone, 
yet some of the data presented in the county reports show that the 
complete stratigraphic relations of these two types of water can not 
be stated so simply. 

A few analyses of Cretaceous waters from the region north and 
west of the area under consideration are given in the following table : 



Analyses of Cretaceous waters in the region north and west of southern Minnesota. 

[Parts per million.] 



No. 




Date. 









, 


a 












c! 




~^ 




o 
u 

3 
o 


"5~ 
o 


bo 

a 

i 




1° 


o 


5 


o 


6 


<B 


eg 


t-l 


a>aa 


a 


ft 

a; 

A 


o 

o 


bo 


o 

03 


s 


ft 

3 

m 


2 
o 


Feci. 














430 


8 


3 


372 


586 


189 


90 


260 


12 


4 


346 


473 


220 


no 


945 


13 


3 


839 


519 


730 


463 


1,000 


10 


3 


929 


600 


416 


791 


1,100 


10 


3 


788 


378 


1,098 


208 


368 


173 


60 


289 


401 


. 897 


26 


1,700 


114 


51 


262 


393 


623 


64 



Northwest city well, Wahpe- 
ton, N. Dak 

Well of John Lockman in 
Breckenridge, Minn 

"Workman's well," Aber- 
deen, S. Dak 

"Artesian well," Aberdeen, 
S. Dak 

Andover, S. Dak 

Bristol, S. Dak.a 

City artesian well, Webster, 
S. Dak 



Sept. 28, 1907 

do 

Oct. 31,1907 



do 

Nov. 18,1904 
May 20,1907 



June 30,1905 



1,004 

949 

2,318 

2,445 
2,295 
1,642 

1,332 



<* It is not certain that this water comes from the Cretaceous. 



Mineral quality. 



73 



Analyses 1 and 2 were made for this survey by H. A. Whittaker, 
chemist, Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 
were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist, Chicago, Milwaukee and 
St. Paul Railway Company. 

It is significant that the analyses here given can also be divided 
into two groups, one containing hard and the other soft water, and 
that all of the main generalizations made above with respect to the 
Cretaceous waters of southern Minnesota will hold in regard to these 
analyses. As far as known, the Cretaceous water of the Red River 
region belongs to the soft group. 

In an investigation conducted by J. H. Shepard a of the South 
Dakota Agricultural College, it was found that two types of Creta- 
ceous water exist in South Dakota. The water of one type is rich 
in calcium and magnesium, and is therefore hard; that of the other 
type is poor in these elements, and is consequently soft. As in Min- 
nesota, the soft water contains more sodium and chlorine, but some- 
what smaller amounts of sulphates than the hard, and it holds very 
little iron, while the hard water holds relatively much. Moreover, 
according to Shepard, the soft water comes from a higher horizon 
than the hard. The former he designates "first flow" water, and 
the latter "second flow" water. In the following table the averages 
of the analyses of each group are given, and in figure 5 the relations of 
the two groups are shown by means of the dotted lines. This figure 
shows that the two South Dakota types correspond to the two types 
found in Minnesota. It would be hazardous, from the data here 
considered, to correlate the 250-foot zone at Marshall with the "first 
flow" stratum of South Dakota, and the 400-foot zone at Marshall 
with the "second flow" stratum of South Dakota; but the fact 
should not be overlooked that these groups of analyses bear important 
and reliable evidence of the general correlation of the Minnesota 
Cretaceous with the Cretaceous of South Dakota. 

Average content of the two groups of Cretaceous waters in South Dakota. 
[Parts per million.] 



Group. 


Number 

of 
analyses. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Eodium 
(Na). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO*). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 




10 
10 


27 
279 


20 
79 


773 
249 


4f>5 
770 


4S0 
145 


2,261 




2,019 







ARCHEAN-CRETACEOUS CONTACT ZONE. 

Two samples were analyzed, one of water which comes from near 
the contact of the Cretaceous and the decomposed upper portion of 

a Shepard, J. H., The artesian waters of South Dakota: South Dakota Agr. Coll. and Exper. Sta. Bull. 
No. 41, 1895. 



u 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



the granite, and the other from the white kaolin that lies between 
these two rock systems. In both places the yield was extremely 
small. The analyses are given in the following table: 

Two analyses of waters from the Archean- Cretaceous contact zone in Lyon County. 

[Parts per million.J 



No.« 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Magne- 
sium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 

(Na+K). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HC0 3 ). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO*). 


Chlorine 
(Ci). 


Total 
solids. 


18 
19 


38 
89 


32 

69 


934 
611 


85 
254 


258 

778 


1,340 

5S0 


2,669 
2,274 



The two samples are somewhat similar, and they are most closely 
allied to the soft Cretaceous waters. Their most distinctive charac- 
teristic is the quantity of sodium chloride (common salt) which they 
contain. The mineralization is probably derived from the Cretaceous 
sediments and not from the Archean residuum. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The following table, compiled by M. L. Fuller, shows the average 
composition of the waters from the various Paleozoic formations, 
based on a large number of reliable analyses: 

Average composition of waters from the various Paleozoic formations. 
[Parts per million.] 



Formation. 


Num- 
ber of 
analy- 
ses. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Mag- 
nesium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SO.). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


Total 
solids. 


Devonian sandstone 


1 

10 
14 
14 

11 
35 
3 
8 
5 

6 

2 

1 
2 

4 
21 


66 
94 

84 
74 

92 
80 
87 
88 
61 

134 

86 

99 
92 
93 

77 


12 
25 
30 
25 

37 
30 
31 
27 
22 

20 

53 

30 
17 

34 
28 


6.7 
41 
20 
14 

23 
31 
15 
37 
36 

98 

16 

9.4 
75 
95 
36 


276 
366 
372 
346 

433 
359 
316 
319 
258 

328 

349 

431 
466 
422 
342 


18 
95 
61 
25 

52 

75 
85 
36 
59 

347 

40 

38 
57 
44 
60 


9 

9.5 
8 
4.1 

8.4 
13 
22 
38 
45 

29 

6.1 

1.2 
15.7 
109 
36 


269 
482 


St. Peter sandstone 

New Richmond sandstone 
Shakopee and Oneota 

dolomites 

Jordan sandstone 

St. Lawrence formation. . 

Dresbach sandstone 

Lower sandstone 


430 
336 

409 
445 
430 
345 
400 


St. Peter, New Rich- 
mond, and Jordan 


739 


St. Peter, New Rich- 
mond, Jordan, Dres- 
bach, and lower sand- 


363 


New Richmond, Jordan, 
Dresbach, and lower 


391 


Jordan and Dresbach 


509 


Jordan, Dresbach, and 

lower sandstones 

Dresbach and lower sand- 


483 
418 







The above table shows (1) that the average waters from all the 
Paleozoic formations are moderately mineralized; (2) that calcium, 



a The number is that under which the analysis is given in the table accompanying the Lyon County 
report (p. 251). 



MINERAL QUALITY. 



75 



magnesium, and the bicarbonate radicle are the principal ingredients; 
and (3) that only minor quantities of chlorine and the alkalies are 
usually present. The tables accompanying the various county 
reports, however, show that some of the Paleozoic waters are highly 
mineralized, similar to the Cretaceous and drift waters of the south- 
western part of the State; and this is perhaps generally true in the 
southwestern province, where the Paleozoic strata extend beneath beds 
of Cretaceous from which they probably derive much of their water. 

The average water of this group has considerable temporary hard- 
ness but less permanent hardness. It deposits scale that is only 
moderately hard, and it will not readily foam nor will it corrode the 
boilers in which it is used. 

The table reveals no important differences in the total solids nor in 
the chemical composition of the waters from the various Paleozoic 
formations, except that the waters from the sandstones are perhaps 
not quite as hard as those from the limestones, and the waters from 
the lowest beds are distinctly richer in chlorine than those from 
higher horizons. 

SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

The following table gives analyses of waters from the Sioux 
quartzite : 

Analyses of waters from the Sioux quartzite. 
[Parts per million.] 



County. 



Jackson 

Pipestone.. 

Jackson 

Pipestone.. 

Do 

Rock 

Pipestone.. 

Do 

Watonwan. 
Rock 



Highest. 
Lowest.. 
Average. 



No. a 



Calcium 
(Ca). 



277 

160 

130 

104 

85 

81 

72 

48 

27 

15 



277 

15 

100 



nesium 

(Mg). 



149 
49 
41 
36 
28 
19 
10 



149 
9 
49 



Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 



134 
33 

276 

110 

20 

7 

38 

16 

532 
2 



532 

2 

117 



Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCOs). 



489 
620 
692 
372 
351 
310 
317 
261 
199 
58 



692 
58 
367 



Sulphate 
radicle 
(S0 4 ). 



877 
41 

886 

368 
89 
45 
59 
16 

389 
24 



16 
279 



Chlorine 
(CI). 



33 
8 

31 
45 
36 
11 
532 
5 



532 
5 
81 



Total 
solids. 



1,807 
845 

1,855 
833 
442 
393 
425 
269 

1,618 
106 



1,855 
106 
859 



There is an enormous range in the total solids and in all of the 
constituents contained in the various quartzite waters. The ex- 
planation of this is evident. The quartzite itself contributes very 
little to the water, and thus in an area where it occurs at the sur- 
face the rain enters the rock at once and remains virtually free of 
dissolved substances. Analysis 3 in Rock County shows a remark- 
ably soft and slightly mineralized water. It comes from a spring at 
the margin of a quartzite plateau which is here covered with only 

1 The number is that under which the analysis is given in the table accompanying the corresponding 
county report. 



76 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



a few feet of drift. The rain soaks at once into the crevices of the 
rock and emerges at a lower level, having dissolved very little of 
any mineral constituent. 

In a district deeply covered with drift, the water falling as rain 
has a long, history previous to its entrance into the quartzite, and 
its mineralization is similar to that of other waters in the drift. 
Analysis 10 in Jackson County is characteristic of this type. This 
water comes from a well that passes through more than 100 feet of 
drift before entering the rock. It is extremely hard and is com- 
parable to some of the most highly mineralized drift waters in the 
same region. 

Again, the quartzite no doubt comes in contact with Cretaceous 
and other stratified formations, and from these may receive waters 
that are characteristic of the source from which they come. Analysis 
13 in Watonwan County probably belongs to this class. 

Many of the quartzite waters are nearly free from iron, and the 
few analyses at hand show an absence of ammonia. The quartzite 
contains essentially no available iron, nor anything that will con- 
sume oxygen; hence it may be assumed that in localities where it 
lies near the surface, its water will retain its atmospheric oxj-gen 
and will be poor in both iron and ammonia. The water pumped 
from this formation is quite free from the fine suspended matter 
which is frequently present in water drawn from the incoherent 
sediments of the drift and Cretaceous. Where it is also free of iron, 
it retains, after reaching the air, a perfect absence of turbidity 
perhaps never found in drift and Cretaceous waters. 

SUMMARY. 

The following table shows the average composition of the prin- 
cipal groups of water discussed in this chapter (see also PI. Y): 

Average composition of the principal groups of underground ivaters. 
[Parts per million.] 



Formations. 


Num- 
ber of 
analy- 
ses. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Mag- 
nesium 
(Mg). 


Sodium 
and po- 
tassium 
(Na+K). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCOs). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(SOO. 


Chlorine 

(CI). 


Total 

solids. 


Glacial drift and other 
surface deposits: 
Southeastern prov- 


86 

88 

25 

29 

17 
15 
137 
10 


88 
191 

135 

7-4 

26 
210 

84 
100 


31 
58 

47 

35 

10 
74 
29 
49 


23 

8S 

44 

65 

500 

215 

34 

117 


372 
499 

446 

507 

414 
445 
358 
367 


62 
542 

154 

.48 

5S4 

837 

74 

279 


24 

21 

53 

10 

146 
35 
21 
81 


438 


Southwestem prov- 


1 132 


North-central prov- 
ince- 
Depth less than 
100 feet 


673 


Depth more thau 
100 feet 


513 


Cretaceous: 





















MINERAL QUALITY. 77 

In conclusion, the following general facts can be pointed out: 

1. The average composition of the waters from the glacial drift 
and other surface deposits in the southeastern province is essen- 
tially the same as that from the underlying Paleozoic formations in 
the same region. 

2. The average composition of the waters from the glacial drift 
and other surface deposits in the southwestern province is similar 
to that of the hard waters from the Cretaceous strata in the same 
district, except that the content of sodium, potassium, and sulphates 
is much less. 

3. In average composition the waters from the glacial drift and 
other surface deposits of the north-central province are intermediate 
in nearly every respect between those from the same deposits in the 
other two provinces, the water from shallow sources in general 
resembling that in the southwestern province, and the deeper water 
resembling more nearly that in the southeastern. 

4. The least mineralized waters are those from the Paleozoic for- 
mations and from the drift and other surface deposits in the same 
area; the most highly mineralized are the Cretaceous waters, while 
next in rank are those from the drift in the southwestern (Cretaceous) 
province. The waters from the Sioux quartzite range from very low 
to very high. 

5. The softest waters are those of the soft-water group of the 
Cretaceous, while the Paleozoic waters, those from the drift and 
other surface deposits in the southeastern province, and those from 
the lower portions of the drift in the north-central province are only 
moderately hard. The hardest waters are those belonging to the 
hard-water group of the Cretaceous and those from the drift in the 
southwestern province. The waters from the Sioux quartzite range 
from very soft to very hard. 

6. The Paleozoic waters and those from the surface deposits in the 
southeastern province contain the smallest amounts of alkali, while 
the Cretaceous waters, and especially the soft Cretaceous waters, 
contain the greatest quantities. The quartzite waters range from 
very low to very high in their alkali content. 

7. The range in the amount of combined carbonic acid (bicar- 
bonates) is much less than that of any other constituent. This is 
true of every group of water in southern Minnesota and of all the 
groups taken together. The waters in the eastern part of the State 
average somewhat lower in this respect than those in the western, 
but the difference is not great. None of the analyses made for the 
Survey showed the presence of normal carbonates. 

8. The Cretaceous waters and the waters from the surface deposits 
in the southwestern province contain notable quantities of sulphates. 
The Paleozoic waters and those from the surface deposits in the 



78 



UNDEEGEOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 



eastern part of the State have a considerable range in the quantity of 
sulphates they contain, though usually only moderate amounts are 
present. In the upper portion of the drift in the north-central prov- 
ince the sulphate content is generally high, while in the lower por- 
tion it is usually very low. In the quartzite waters the range is great. 

9. In chlorine the soft Cretaceous waters rank highest, some being 
distinct]} 7 salty to the taste. The hard Cretaceous waters and the 
deepest Paleozoic waters also contain considerable quantities of this 
element, but the normal waters from the glacial drift and other sur- 
face deposits throughout southern Minnesota and from the upper 
formations of the Paleozoic generally contain only small amounts. 

10. The deeper drift waters and the hard Cretaceous waters are 
usually relatively rich in iron and free ammonia and poor in nitrates, 
while the very shallow drift and alluvium waters and other waters 
containing free oxygen average lower in iron and ammonia and higher 
in nitrates. The soft Cretaceous waters are relatively low in iron 
and nitrates, but relatively high in ammonia. The relations of these 
three constituents to each other are shown by the following summary 
table, which is based chiefly upon analyses of samples from the sur- 
face deposits and Cretaceous: 

Relations of iron,Jree ammonia, and nitrates to each other in underground icaters of south- 
ern Minnesota. 

[Parts per million.] 





All groups except soft 
Cretaceous water. 


Soft Cretaceous water. 


Iron (Fe). 


Number 
of analy- 
ses. 


Free 

ammonia 

(NH 3 ). 


Nitrate 
radicle 
(N0 3 ). 


Number 
of analy- 
ses. 


Free 

ammonia 

(NH 3 ). 


Nitrate 
radicle 
(NO3). 




8 
3 
7 

13 
13 
16 
9 
2 


0.02 

.01 

.02 

.78 

1.11 

1.26 

1.67 

1.16 


19.2 
31.7 
22.6 
.5 
.1 
.3 
.1 
.0 


3 
3 
3 
3 

1 
1 




2.46 


0.0 


0.1 


.0 


0.2 


1.17 

3.38 
1.01 
1.69 


.0 


0.3 to 1 


.0 


1 to2 


.0 


2to3 


.0 


3 to 5 

















PROBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 



By M. L. Puller and O. E. Meinzer. 

To explain the advantages and disadvantages of the different types 
of wells for the various conditions found in southern Minnesota, and 
to discuss the multitude of problems that are confronted in construct- 
ing and finishing these wells, would require an extensive treatise. 
In the following pages only a few subjects pertaining to wells are con- 
sidered — subjects which are especially important for the area under 
consideration, 



PROBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 



79 



TYPES OF WELLS. 



IN THE SURFACE DEPOSITS. 



-Casing 



-Pump rod 



-Casing 
-Pump pipe 
-Pump rod 



A majority of the wells of southern Minnesota draw their water 
from the glacial drift. Since the drift sheet, which is spread over 
most of the region, is but slightly eroded and poorly drained, and 
since much of the loosely aggregated material near the surface is 
more or less porous, small supplies of water are generally found near 
the surface except in periods of prolonged drought. It was a simple 
matter for the pioneer to dig down 
to water, and the shallow dug well 
was therefore at first the prevailing 
type wherever the drift was suffi- 
ciently deep and undissected. Later 
well augers or boring machines were 
introduced, with which it was pos- 
sible to penetrate the incoherent 
deposits more readily. By the use 
of these machines wells were con- 
structed that have a somewhat 
smaller diameter and greater depth 
than those dug by hand, but which 
resemble the latter in principle. In 
both types it is difficult to sink 
deeper after a saturated sand bed' 
is reached, and hence weak surficial 
water horizons are utilized and reli- 
ance for obtaining a sufficient supply 
is placed chiefly in the large diame- 
ter and the pervious casing (com- 
monly consisting of boards), by 
means of which the seepage is re- 
ceived from an extensive surface. 
Because of its large diameter, such figure e.-Diagram showing the two most com- 
a well also serves as a reservoir, mon types of deep-wen pumps. 

gradually filling up to the ground-water level, and thus accumulating 
a store of water during the intervals that it is not pumped. 

A bored or dug well is unsatisfactory in several respects. The 
constant fluctuation of the level of the water causes the wooden 
casing to decay rapidly, with the result that the clay and gravel on the 
sides cave and fall into the bottom of the well, soon filling it above 
the ground-water table. When the casing is partly rotted the well 
becomes a veritable trap for mice, rats, rabbits, and other small 
animals, which decompose in the water, producing conditions notori- 



-Valve of 
plunger 

-Valve 



ra 



Pump cylinder 
■Valve of plunger 

-Valve 
-Water level 

Suction pipe 



"TUBULAR' 



INDEPENDENT 
PUMP 



80 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Pump 



■Drill rod 



ously filthy. Furthermore, in seasons of protracted drought the 
yield, which in most instances is normally small, becomes much 
reduced, or the well may dry up entirely, thus subjecting the farmer 
to great inconvenience. As the herds of live stock grow in size the 
difficulties attending an uncertain water supply increase in serious- 
ness, and as the farmers become prosperous many of them are 
ready to abandon their unsatisfactory shallow wells and to employ a 
driller to sink to stronger and more reliable beds at greater depths. 

The most common type of drilled 
wells ending in the drift is the so- 
called "tubular," which is cased 
with 2-inch iron pipe and terminates 
with a sand screen or strainer, 
through which the water is ad- 
mitted. In this type the plunger 
and valve are inserted in the cas- 
ing and there is no independent 
pump pipe (fig. 6). The wells are 
usually drilled by the "jetting" 
process, in which water constantly 
forced down through a hollow drill 
rod by means of a pump, is ejected 
with some force through a small 
orifice at the bottom and returns to 
the surface on the outside of the 
drill rod, carrying up the material 
that has been loosened by the drill 
or by its own impact. Another 
method, less frequently employed, 
is locally known as the "hydrau- 
lic" process. In this case water 
poured down the hole is forced up 
into the hollow drill rod with every 
downward stroke of the latter, and 
is prevented from returning by 
means of a valve. Thus the water 
is brought up carrying the drillings with it. Both methods are 
shown diagrammatically in figure 7. One of the principal diffi- 
culties met in drilling in the drift is presented by the glacial bowlders, 
which block effectually the progress of all driUs of frail construction. 
These obstacles can best be removed by the use of explosives. 

There are now numerous drilled drift wells of larger diameter, 
owned by municipalities, railway companies, and various manufactur- 
ing concerns, and not infrequently by farmers. A well more than 
3 or 4 inches in diameter is usually made with a "standard rig," in 






■Orifice 
-Drill 



"JETTING PROCESS" "HYDRAULIC PROCESS" 

Figuee 7.— Diagram showing two methods of 
drilling "tubular" wells. 



PEOBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 81 

which a heavy percussion drill is suspended by means of a cable and 
is withdrawn at regular intervals in order that the drillings may be 
removed by lowering a bailer or "sand bucket." Virtually all drilled 
wells ending in the drift are provided with iron casing from top to 
bottom. 

While on a large proportion of farms the bored wells have been 
replaced by drilled ones, in most of the villages they are still in general 
use for furnishing domestic supplies. Dug wells of great diameter, 
sunk into alluvial or outwash gravels, are frequently used for public 
and locomotive supplies. 

In the areas where sand or gravel lies at the surface, shallow, inex- 
pensive driven wells are the prevailing type and for the most part 
furnish very satisfactory supplies. Such a well consists merely of a 
perforated "sand point" attached to an iron pipe and driven into the 
sandy deposits either by means of mallets wielded by hand or by some 
contrivance similar to a pile driver. 

IN THE CRETACEOUS. 

The Cretaceous rocks consist essentially of soft shale and sandstone 
that can be penetrated quite as readily as the drift. Hard material, 
perhaps chiefly concretionary in character, is frequently encountered, 
but there are no erratic bowlders such as cause trouble in the 
drift. Most of the wells that draw from this system are of the small 
"tubular" type, and although generally several hundred feet in depth, 
are for the most part drilled with very light rigs, by the "jetting" 
process above described. Wells passing through the Cretaceous, like 
those in the drift, are cased throughout with iron pipes. 

IN THE PALEOZOIC. 

In the southeastern part of the State, where there is considerable 
relief and the rock lies near the surface, the drift does not always 
supply enough water even for farm use, and consequently numerous 
wells have been drilled into the Paleozoic formations. Since in many 
places on the uplands the distance to water is great, many of these 
wells are deep. For penetrating the indurated limestones, shales, and 
sandstones of the Paleozoic, relatively heavy percussion drills are 
necessary, and it is not found advantageous to have the hole less than 
5 or 6 inches in diameter. In most instances casing is inserted only to 
the unweathered rock, below which the well is open. 

IN THE SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

In the southwestern part of the State there are localities in which 
the Sioux quartzite (locally known as "the red rock") is so near the 
surface that little or no water is obtained from the overlying deposits. 
60920°— wsp 256—11 6 



82 TJNDEBGBOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEBN MINNESOTA. 

In these areas the problem of water supplies was at one time acute, but 
wells are now sunk into the rock and adequate quantities of water 
are secured there from. The quartzite is very hard, hence drilling 
into it is a slow and expensive process. Moreover, the mechanical 
difficulties prove quite insurmountable to anyone not skilled in this 
kind of work. Most of the wells are 6 inches in diameter and are 
made with heavy percussion drills. They require no casing nor 
screens, and when once constructed are permanent. 

IN THE AECHEAN. 

Although the Archean crystalline rocks are essentially not water 
bearing, much money has been expended in drilling into them, fre- 
quently to considerable depths. The admonition is here repeated 
that when unweathered granite or allied igneous rock is reached 
drilling should in all cases be discontinued. 

FINISHING WELLS IN SAND. 
THE PEOBLEM. 

Throughout the southwestern part of Minnesota and adjacent parts 
of Iowa and South Dakota the majority of drilled wells end in sand 
belonging either to the glacial drift or the Cretaceous system. The 
successful finishing of these wells is perhaps the most important prob- 
lem in connection with water supplies in this area. Most of them 
have 2-inch iron casing which serves also as the pump pipe (fig. 6.). 
The sand rises with the water so persistently that it is found necessary 
to put a screen or strainer at the bottom of the casing to shut out the 
sand while admitting the water. Various types of screens are in use, 
but the common type for wells of small diameter consists of a per- 
forated iron pipe surrounded by a brass gauze of fine mesh, and the 
whole inclosed in a perforated jacket to protect the gauze. The 
screen is small enough so that it can be let down inside the casing. 

Wells finished in this manner prove satisfactory for a time, but in 
the course of a few years the yield diminishes and eventually almost 
no water can be obtained. When the screens are removed they are 
found to be effectually sealed by a coating of silt, etc., firmly cemented 
into a hard impervious mass. The cost of a screen is not great, and 
the substitution of a new one for the old every few years would be no 
serious matter were it not that the removal of a screen is attended by 
great difficulties. In many instances the coating of cemented silt 
becomes so thick that the screen can not be withdrawn on the inside, 
and it is then necessary to pull up the entire casing in order to remove 
it. The labor and difficulty involved in this process are considered 
by many drillers to be equivalent to those of sinking a new well. 



PEOBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 83 

Moreover, the rusted casing is liable to break, or the hole may cave 
in, and the well is then usually lost. 

The clogging of the screen has been found to be so great a nuisance 
that in many localities the drilled wells have nearly all been abandoned 
and shallow sources are again resorted to. Especially has this been 
done in the recent years of abundant rainfall, following a series of dry 
years in which many of the drilled wells were sunk. The aggregate 
cost of the wells that have thus been abandoned in this region amounts 
to hundreds of thousands of dollars, and, furthermore, the return to 
shallow wells is not a solution of the problem. In recognition of the 
magnitude of the difficulty the entire matter was investigated with a 
view to finding a practical remedy. 

CHEMISTRY OF THE INCRUSTING PROCESS: 

In order to ascertain the composition of the incrustant and the 
chemical changes involved in the incrusting process, a typical 2-inch 
well was selected from which had recently been removed a screen of 
the ordinary construction, coated with the usual hard, dirty-gray 
substance. The water from this well and the incrusting material 
were both analyzed. 

The well is owned by George Clynick and is located in the SW. { 
sec. 33, T. 104 N., R. 29 W., in Martin County, Minn. It was drilled 
in 1S99 and is 70 feet deep and 2 inches in diameter. It yields all 
that the windmill can pump. The head is 13 feet below the surface. 
In drilling the material penetrated was (1) blue clay; (2) bluish-white 
sand, at first very fine but changing to coarse grit, in which the 
well ends. The well has an iron casing, with a screen at the bottom. 
The screen is a perforated galvanized iron pipe surrounded by brass 
gauze, the whole inclosed in a perforated brass sheath. It is 3 feet 
long and about 1 inch in diameter. The length of time required for 
it to become effectually clogged is reported to be about five years. 

Analysis of water in clogged well. 
[Date, July 25, 1907. Analyst, H. A. Whittaker, chemist, Minnesota state board of health.] 

Parts per 
million. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 24 

Iron (Fe) 2. 6 

Calcium (Ca) 140 

Magnesium (Mg) 54 

Sodium and potassium (Na-f-K) 22 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 259 

Sulphate radicle (SO<) 389 

Chlorine (CI) 4 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 1. 5 

Free ammonia 2. 

Carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) 54 

Total solids... , , 772 



84 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Analysis of material that incrustcd screen in clogged well. 

[Date, Sept. 26, 1907. Analyst, R. B. Dole, U. S. Geological Survey.] 

Clay, sand, silica, etc 56. 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe 2 3 +Al.,0 3 ) 2. 8 

CalciUm (Ca) 13. 

Magnesium (Mg) 1.3 

Alkalies (Na+K) 7 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 20. 6 

Sulphate radicle (SO<) 4 

Chlorine (CI) 1 

Phosphate radicle. (PO) 

Organic and volatile matter 5. 3 

100. 2 

To the above analysis the following note was added : 

Of the 56 per cent comprising the silica and insoluble silicates, only 31 per cent is 
volatilized by hydrofluoric acid, showing that there is probably considerable clay 
present. Indeed, clay, sand, and carbonates of calcium and magnesium comprise 
90 per cent of the deposit. The probable presence of sand particles is indicated by 
the fact that the substance was gritty when first pulverized and required two days' 
grinding to reduce it to a powder fine enough for analysis. 

The principal cementing substance is probably calcium carbonate 
precipitated from the water. The sand, silt, and clay are packed 
about the screen by the inflow of the water, and the interstices are 
then filled with calcium carbonate and other materials. Thus the 
whole becomes a nearly impervious sheath which shuts out the 
water. 

Whenever in any well the pump is operated the weight of the 
water column is decreased by the removal of water, and it is this 
diminution in pressure that causes a new supply of water to flow 
through the screen into the well. The reduction of the pressure may 
allow a portion of the carbon dioxide to pass out of solution, dis- 
turbing the equilibrium between the free carbon dioxide and the 
bicarbonate radicle and effecting partial decomposition of the latter 
substance. As a result of this reaction, calcium carbonate is prob- 
ably precipitated and is incorporated in the incrusting material. 
Only minute quantities of calcium carbonate need be deposited in 
order to effect the sealing of the screen in the course of several years. 
Possibly precipitated iron also adds to the cementing material. 
Electrolysis may occur between the brass and iron portions of the 
screen, but does not seem to be an adequate cause. City and village 
wells are usually provided with large brass screens, and these do not 
appear to cause as much trouble as the ordinary screens in the 
2-inch farm wells, but brass screens in the 2-inch farm wells become 
incrusted as readily as the ordinary brass and iron ones, and the 
incrustant appears to be of the same character. If the diagnosis 
given is correct, the process does not depend chiefly upon the nature 



PEOBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 85 

of the screen, but upon changes that unavoidably accompany the 
withdrawal of water from the well, and hence the remedy must be 
sought along mechanical rather than chemical lines. 

REMEDIES. 

A study of the mechanical aspects of the problem makes it possible 
to put forth some suggestions, which, if followed, should prove of 
value, diminishing the annoyance and expense connected with wells 
finished in sand. 

A well of large diameter and open end. — Two-inch wells should not 
be drilled in regions where the screens become incrusted. For farm 
purposes wells from 4 to 6 inches in diameter can generally be fin- 
ished successfully with open ends, whereas it is invariably necessary 
to put screens into those which are only 2 inches in diameter. The 
explanation is simple. With a given rate of pumping the upward 
velocity of the water in a well varies inversely as the square of the 
diameter; while the capacity of a current to move solid particles has 
been proved to vary as the sixth power of the velocity. Consequently 
sand that will cause no trouble in a large well will be driven rapidly 
into a small one if it is not screened. Practically the effect is prob- 
ably even greater than the above ratio indicates, because in the wells 
of large diameter the inflow and upward velocity are nearly constant 
as long as the rate of pumping is kept constant, while in a well of 
small diameter the casing usually serves also as the pump pipe, and 
hence the upward current is not uniform, being zero during the down- 
ward stroke and varying from zero to a maximum and back to zero 
during the upward stroke. This can be better understood by refer- 
ence to figure 6. In general it will be found more satisfactory and 
ultimately more economical to drill wells at least 4 inches in diameter 
than to put down the small 2-inch "tubulars." 

It is important, however, to understand that the finishing of sand 
wells with open ends should be attempted only where the rate of 
pumping is to be slow, for example, in farm wells where windmills 
are used. As a rule wells furnishing water for public supplies and 
all others pumped by steam or gasoline engines should be provided 
with screens. A number of sand wells used for public supplies in 
southern Minnesota were finished without screens and nearly all of 
these have given trouble. The sand rises with the water, cutting 
out the pump valves, clogging the mains, and filling the wells to such 
an extent that the supply is greatly diminished or the wells are totally 
ruined. 

A well of large diameter finished with a screen. — Drilled sand wells of 
large diameter invariably require screens if the rate of pumping is 
to be rapid, and some require them even though the rate of pumping 
is slow. Whenever there is danger that the sand will rise it is the 



86 CJNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

part of discretion to put in a screen. It should be remembered, 

however, that a JV-ineh well with a screen is much better than a 
2-inch well similarly finished. In the latter the screen must of neces- 
sity tit snugly into the casing, and when it becomes incrusted it is 
liable to refuse to come up, thus causing much trouble and fre- 
quently making it necessary io pull the entire casing. In a 5-inch 
Well, on the other hand, a small enough screen can be used so that 
there will be no difficulty in removing it. Experience shows that it 
is poor economy to drill --inch wells. 

Finding a coarse layer. -The glacial deposits, in which ninny of 
the wells under consideration end. are irregular and may alternate 
rapidly from tine sand to coarse gravel. It is a matter of great 
importance to finish a well where the material is coarsest. Drillers 
understand the significance of this but are not always successful in 
practice. As a rule, the coarsest part of a sand and gravel bed is at 
the bottom, but this is not invariably so. 

Driving the easing to the proper depth. — Commonly a thin layer of 
"hardpan" lies at the contact between a bed of clay and a deposit of 
water-bearing sand and gravel. Frequently there is difficulty in 
driving the easing through the "hardpan," and hence it is often 
allowed to stop above this hard layer or to tit only loosely into it. 
If a screen is inserted it is somewhat smaller than the casing and 
can easily be projected through the hole in the "hardpan" and into 
the water-bearing sand. This is a careless method of finishing a 
well. The clay is liable to be washed down and to come in contact 
with the screen, thus greatly hastening the clogging process; or if 
the well has an open end the caving of the clay may obstruct the 
entrance. Not infrequently wells are ruined by neglect of the 
driller in this respect. Whether they are to be finished with or 
without a screen, it is important to have the easing driven com- 
pletely through the cap of "hardpan" and down into the coarsest 
part of the sand or gravel. 

Developing a natural sereen. -Glacial deposits, and to some extent 
also Cretaceous strata, are poorly sorted, tine sand and coarser grit 
generally being more or less mixed together. When a well is to be 
finished in one of these deposits it should be pumped for a pro- 
tracted period in such a manner as to remove the fine silt ami leave 
a natural screen of coarser material. This frequently makes it pos- 
sible to finish the well without a screen where otherwise one would 
have been required, but it should be done even where a screen is 
inserted. Proper treatment in this respect requires patience and 
skill, but it undoubtedly results in superior wells. 

Making an artificial graeel screen. — The process of developing a 
natural sereen is sometimes supplemented by introducing into the 
well a quantity of gravel o crushed tile of the proper coarseness. 



PROBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 87 

This method has proved successful with drillers who arc; willing to 
devote sufficient time and effort to it 7 and often makes it possible 
to finish a well without putting in an ordinary screen. 

An independent pump. — As has already been explained, in 2-inch 
wells the casing usually serves also as the pump pipe; a device that 
produces more or less unsatisfactory results. The water must enter 
as rapidly as it is drawn up by the pump. This gives an intermittent 
and irregular current into the well and increases greatly the danger 
of drawing up sand. Even where a screen is used it is liable to force 
fine silt through the meshes or to break holes in the screen, and the 
great reduction of pressure in the well on the upstroke probably 
increases the precipitation of calcium carbonate. When the yield 
is small or when the inflow of the water is obstructed by the incrusting 
of the screen, pumping becomes difficult and the wear and tear become 
great. An independent pump hung in a well of adequate diameter 
involves some additional cost, but is much more satisfactory. 

Removing the screen frequently. — Much of the difficulty with the 
screens could be avoided if they were renewed more frequently. A 
screen which is left in the well until it has become so completely sealed 
that its removal is absolutely necessary not only is an aggravation 
for a long time before its removal, but also is likely to have become 
so thickly coated that it can not easily be withdrawn. 

Summary. — Only wells of large diameter should be drilled (that is, 
4 inches or more). Care should be taken to drive the casing through 
the cap of "hardpan" and through any beds of quicksand which 
may exist, to the coarsest portion of the deposit. The fine sand 
should then be removed by protracted pumping and a natural screen 
of coarser sand or gravel developed. Gravel of the proper coarseness 
may also be introduced into the well to be added to the natural 
strainer. If the water is to be drawn at a slow rate and an inde- 
pendent pump is used, it is not usually necessary to put in a metal 
screen. If, however, the water will not become clear and the sand 
persists in rising, a screen should be inserted and tightly attached 
to the bottom of the casing. It should be considerably smaller than 
the latter in order that it can easily be removed when it has become 
incrusted. As soon as the yield of the well shows distinct signs of 
reduction, the screen should be drawn up and cleaned or else replaced 
by a new one. 

DRILLING IN QUARTZITE. 

The Sioux quartzite ("red rock") presents a group of difficulties 
which are exceedingly troublesome to any driller not accustomed to 
penetrating this formation, but if these difficulties are foreseen and 
properly guarded against they become much less serious. The 
following are some of the principal points that must be observed: 



88 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

(1) The machine must be strong and heavy. Many of the rigs that 
are satisfactory for sinking into the drift and Cretaceous are entirely 
inadequate for hard rock drilling. (2) The well must be large enough 
to admit heavy drill rods. A hole 6 inches in diameter can perhaps 
be drilled -more advantageously than any larger or smaller size. (3) 
The drill must be kept properly sharpened and tempered. It is 
customar} T to have the outfit include a forge and to be equipped with 
two drills in order that one can be sharpened while the other is in 
service. The length of time a drill can be used advantageously 
before it is exchanged for a newly sharpened one varies with the 
hardness of the rock, the average period being about forty minutes. 
(4) The drill must be kept up to the standard diameter. As the 
hard rock abrades its sides, it gradually becomes smaller and makes 
a hole of diminished diameter. When once the size of the hole has 
been reduced, it is well-nigh impossible to enlarge it. Thus it hap- 
pened, before this contingency was vigilantly guarded against, that 
the well would persistently shrink in diameter as the work progressed, 
until it was no longer feasible to continue drilling. It is now the 
a & practice to restore the drill to its standard 

diameter each time it is removed and sharp- 
ened. (5) The well must be kept straight. 
Its obstinate tendency to become crooked was 
oft perhaps the greatest difficulty encountered 



Soft 



Hard ^ HarcT^ v by the pioneer rock drillers. This may be 

FrouKE 8.-Diagram showing ihe caused h J the presence of " crevices " which 
deflection of the drill in Sioux the drill persists in following, instead of cut- 
quartzite. ^ straight downward into the hard rock. 

More commonly perhaps it is due to the fact that there are great 
differences in the degree of induration. Thus when the drill passes 
from a relatively soft portion into harder rock (the contact plane 
between the two being oblique), instead of going directly downward 
into the hard rock it tends to follow the contact plane and to remain 
in the soft portion (fig. 8). It is about as difficult to straighten a 
hole that is out of alignment as it is to enlarge a contracted one, and 
the experienced workman is therefore watchful to prevent any 
departure from the plumb line. The principal precaution to be 
taken is to work with a taut cable when the drill shows a tendency to 
be deflected. 

PHENOMENA DUE TO VARIATIONS IN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 
FLUCTUATION OF HEAD. 

The fluctuations in the level to which water rises in wells are con- 
trolled by a number of factors, most of which (such as rainfall, melt- 
ing of snow, and freezing and thawing of the ground) relate to the 
supply contributed to the underground reservoirs. But attention is 



PROBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 89 

here directed to a class of fluctuations more limited in their range 
and less frequently observed, but no doubt occurring very generally. 
They are the variations in water level resulting from the changes in 
the pressure of the atmosphere. An example is afforded in the 
vicinity of Winnebago, where it is reported that some of the wells 
show slight daily variations of level, the water frequently standing 
lowest at about 10 a. m., when the barometric pressure is usually 
greatest, and highest at about 4 p. m., when the pressure is likely 
to be least; while still greater fluctuations mark the passage of 
storms, the water rising materially with the decrease in pressure on 
their approach, and subsiding on the return of fair weather and a 
high barometer. 

VARIATIONS IN THE YIELD OF FLOWING WELLS. 

It follows as a corollary of what has just been said that the dis- 
charge from flowing wells is greater when the barometer is low than 
when it is high. Although this is perhaps a universal phenomenon, 
the difference in discharge is usually so small that it is quite unob- 
served. However, where the artesian pressure is slight, as in many 
of the drift and Paleozoic wells of the region under consideration, 
the effect of the fluctuations in atmospheric pressure is frequently 
apparent, and it sometimes happens that a well will flow during 
storms but will cease flowing when the weather clears up. The well 
of the Red Wing Malting Company, 470 feet deep and ending in 
sandstone, is said to flow 25 per cent more when the wind is north- 
east (during storms) than ordinarily. 

ROILINESS OF THE WATER DURING STORMS. 

Most wells, except when first sunk, yield clear water. In isolated 
cases, however, the water, which is ordinarily clear, becomes cloudy 
or milky on the approach of storms, and more rarely it turns to a 
bright yellow or deep red color under the same conditions. Among 
the instances of milkiness before storms may be mentioned certain 
wells near Lakeville in Scott County, while of discoloration the most 
pronounced examples are in the vicinity of Waterville in Lesueur 
County. Examination shows the milkiness to be due to the presence 
of a slight amount of suspended silt or clay, and the yellow and red 
colors to fine particles of iron oxide held in suspension. 

Since this phenomenon is closely associated with the changes in 
the weather, it is altogether probable that in some way it results 
from fluctuations in atmospheric pressure. In the case of flowing 
wells it could perhaps be explained by the increased discharge during 
low barometer, the water at these times having a greater velocity 
and hence being able to bring up sediment that usually remains 



90 UNDEEGBOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 

undisturbed. But the fact that the phenomenon occurs also in wells 
that do not flow seems to discredit such a hypothesis and leaves the 
precise explanation obscure. 

"blowing" and "breathing" wells. 

"Blowing" and "sucking" are common phenomena in southern 
Minnesota, not only in drilled wells, but also in those of the dug and 
bored types. In the latter the air passes in and out through open- 
ings in the curbs, in some instances with considerable force. Often 
the whistling of the escaping air is loud enough to be heard for 
several rods. In some wells in other sections of the country the 
current is strong enough to operate a whistle that can be heard at a 
distance of a mile or more. The indraft is usually less rapid and 
less conspicuous than the outward current, and in warm climates it 
is often overlooked, but its presence is abundantly demonstrated by 
freezing wells. In the majority of instances, however, the "blowing" 
is observed to be intermittent and to alternate with periods of "suck- 
ing." In this case the well is commonly known as a "breathing" 
well, or it may be aptly caUed a "barometer" or "weather" well. 

Since the "blowing" is commonly associated with a falling bar- 
ometer and the "sucking" with a rising barometer, it seems certain 
that they are caused by the variations of atmospheric pressure. 
The essential condition is that the well must be in connection with 
underground cavities not filled with water and not in free communi- 
cation with the atmosphere. This condition is common in the 
Paleozoic area, where formations of limestone are traversed by solu- 
tion passages forming a cavernous network, where these formations 
are now covered by drift or other relatively impervious material, 
where the ground-water level is often low, leaving the passages filled 
with air instead of water, and where the wells are generally not cased 
below the point at which they enter indurated rock. Porous gravels 
of the drift will serve the same function as the solution passages 
of the limestone, provided they he above the ground-water level 
and are not shut out by the casing. When, on the approach of a 
storm, the pressure at the surface is reduced, the air confined in the 
earth rushes out until equilibrium is reestablished; but when, upon 
the return of fair weather, the pressure again increases air is forced 
back through the well into the earth. In the few wells from which 
water is spouted during the period of "blowing," the casing probably 
extends virtually to the water, but not far below it. 

Some of the "blowing" wells of southern Minnesota will be briefly 
described. (1) In a number of the valleys between Wabasha and 
Reads Landing and elsewhere in the same vicinity, a dozen or more 
wells are known which exhibit the phenomenon of "blowing," the 
air coming in strongly at depths of about 60 feet from openings in 



PKOBLEMS EELATING TO WELLS. 91 

the limestone into which the wells are mainly drilled. (2) In the 
region of Waseca, under a layer of clayey hardpan at about 100 
feet below the plateau surface, there appears to be a bed of coarse 
gravel which yields "blowing" wells whenever encountered, but 
which does not afford water. In one well of the group it is known 
that the "blowing" alternates with a "sucking" of the air. (3) On 
the prairies in the vicinity of Roberds and Cannon lakes, near Fari- 
bault, many "blowing" wells are reported. According to the local 
drillers the phenomenon is confined to uncased wells, the air being 
found in gravel beneath beds of clay, never in gravel near the surface. 
According to their statements, when the wind is from the south air 
is expelled with a whistling sound; when from the north it is drawn 
in. Poisonous gas is sometimes given off with the expelled air, 
occasionally producing fatal results. In winter, during periods of 
north wind, freezing occurs to a depth of 80 feet, notwithstanding 
the attempts to prevent it by coverings. (4) In Lac qui Parle 
County there are a number of "barometer" wells ending in gravel. 
In one of them water is forcibly ejected when a storm is approaching. 

FREEZING OF WELLS. 

At certain points in southern Minnesota much trouble is experi- 
enced from the freezing of the water in wells, and it is often only 
with the greatest difficulty that the wells are kept in use during the 
winter. It is known that the freezing takes place in the clear 
weather following a storm, when the barometer stands unusually 
high, while the wells thaw during storms or periods of low barometer. 
It is further noted in some wells that the freezing takes place when 
there is an inward current, while the thawing is associated with a 
discharge of air. These facts show that barometric fluctuation is 
the general cause of the difficulty. 

The freezing occurs in dug and drilled wells, but is not manifested 
in double-tube wells when both casings are carried below the water 
level, although where the outer extends only to the rock or stops at 
some other point before the water is reached there is danger of 
freezing. In some wells the mischief seems to be caused not by the 
air passing down on the inside of the casing, but by its penetrating 
on the outside or through natural passages intersecting the well. 

In the treatment of freezing wells the aim is either to warm the 
air passing in or to prevent its entrance. The most common method 
of accomplishing the first of these purposes is to pack manure about 
the top of the well, the heat generated by its decomposition tending 
to warm the air to some extent. This method should be condemned, 
since it involves the danger of polluting the water. 

A better remedy is to prevent the entrance of the air. If possible 
this should be done by carrying air-tight casings to a sufficient depth, 



92 UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

but air currents can also be stopped by filling the space between the 
two tubes with some impervious material. A filling of cement rest- 
ing on an improvised plug is very effective, as is the use of rubber 
packers, where these can be secured. The homemade rag packing is 
unsatisfactory, as it is generally sufficiently porous to permit the air 
to get in. Where the air does not enter through the well, but passes 
down on the outside or circulates in underground passages intersect- 
ing the drill hole, it may be advisable to fill the space between the 
outer and inner tubes from top to bottom with cement. 

In dug wells the remedy lies not in housing the well, a method that 
has been found unsuccessful, but rather in making an air-tight curb 
of cement or other material tightly fitted to the well curb, which 
should also be lined with cement for some feet below the surface to 
prevent the entrance of air through the soil. 

DRAINAGE BY WELLS. 

THE PROBLEM. 

Over much of the drift-covered uplands of southern Minnesota the 
ground-water level is near the surface, and numerous undrained 
depressions exist as swamps or lakes. The soils of such depressions 
are usually rich, and when reclaimed yield splendid crops, tracts 
originally almost worthless being converted to valuable farming lands 
that add materially to the productiveness of the region. Artificial 
drainage, therefore, is a problem of great importance. 

Cooperative drainage by ditching is undoubtedly the best general 
method, and is the one commonly employed where the relief is suffi- 
cient to make it possible and where the wet lands are not separated 
from the drainage line by ridges of too great height. But where the 
topographic conditions are such that it is not feasible to conduct the 
water to a natural drainage channel, small tracts can in some cases 
be reclaimed by drainage wells. 

NECESSARY CONDITIONS. 

The efficiency of wells for drainage purposes depends upon the 
difference in head of the surface and underground water, and upon 
the texture of the deposits into which the Water is introduced. The 
texture is important in determining the water-bearing capacity, the 
rate at which the water is conducted away, and the liability of the 
passages to become filled by sediment unavoidably carried down by 
the water. 

Of the various materials encountered in drilling, gravels are among 
the best for drainage by wells, since they not only have a high degree 
of porosity, averaging 30 to 35 per cent of their volume, but the 
openings are so large that they conduct water readily and do not 



PKOBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 93 

easily become clogged by foreign matter. Sand, though fully as 
porous as gravel, offers more resistance to the passage of the water 
and has a greater tendency to become clogged. This latter difficulty 
is a serious obstacle to draining into sand, especially into the finer 
varieties. Of the consolidated materials in southern Minnesota, sand- 
stones and limestones only need to be considered. The former are 
rather porous, but present the same difficulties as unconsolidated 
sand. The limestone in itself is virtually impervious, but its bedding 
planes, joints, and solution passages afford ideal conditions for drain- 
age by wells. 

REMOVAL OF DEBRIS AND SEDIMENT FROM THE WATER. 

One of the principal precautions to be taken in connection with 
drainage into wells is to prevent the entrance of solid matter, which 
will in time partly choke up the pores of the formation into which the 
water is poured, and will thus greatly reduce the capacity of the 
well. This foreign material consists of two kinds — (1) floating vege- 
table matter in the form of leaves, twigs, grass, slime, etc., and (2) 
suspended particles of clay and silt. The floating matter can readily 
be strained out by allowing the water to pass through a screen. The 
particles of clay and silt are less easily removed. Perhaps the most 
feasible method is to have a settling reservoir, but it is possible that, 
under conditions otherwise favorable, some method of filtration could 
profitably be employed. If the wet land is drained through a sub- 
surface system of tiles, the water conducted to the well will be less 
burdened by sediment than if it flows upon the surface. 

EXTENT OF AREAS THAT CAN BE RECLAIMED. 

The number of acres that can be reclaimed with a well of a given 
diameter depends upon the factors already mentioned as governing 
the capacity of the well, and upon the quantity of water that must 
be removed per acre. In many cases not only the visible water but 
also the tributary ground water must be disposed of. Where the 
conditions are favorable, a single 4-inch well will sometimes remove 
ponds 2 or 3 acres in extent and drain land areas of 10 to 60 acres 
between the thawing in the spring and the time of planting." At a 
few places in southern Minnesota wells have been used for the 
drainage of wet lands. Six miles south of Blooming Prairie, Steele 
County, a well successfully drained several acres, while 3 miles 
south of Albert Lea a 3-inch well drained 5 acres. Similar results are 
said to have been obtained in other localities. If reservoirs were 

a Horton, R. E., The drainage of ponds into drilled wells: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 
145, 1905, pp. 30-39. 

Crider, A. F., Drainage of wet lands in Arkansas by wells: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol Sur%-ey No. 
160, 1906, pp. 54-58. 



94 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

excavated they would not only serve to free the water of sediment, 
but, by receiving the water at times of heavy rainfall, would keep 
the wells more constantly employed and would thereby increase 
their effective capacity. 

HYDRAULIC RAMS. 

The benefits resulting from the use of hydraulic rams have seldom 
been brought to the attention of the spring owners and the owners 
of flowing wells. The statement is often made by a property holder 
that he would give a considerable sum of money for a flowing well 
at his house like that of some more fortunate neighbor on lower 
ground, or for a spring like those in an adjacent valley. Of course 
the conditions may make it impracticable for a farmer to obtain 
such water at his home, but hi many localities the same advantages 
may be secured by installing a hydraulic ram. Given a flowing 
well or spring with a few feet of head and a moderate yield, this 
appliance can frequently be successfully used to lift an adequate 
supply of water to a house and barn at a considerably higher level. 
With 5 feet of head at the ram, the water may be conveniently 
raised to about 30 feet, while with large rams and favorable condi- 
tions of head and volume, water can be carried as much as half a 
mile and lifted 200 feet. The length of the supply pipe should be 
at least 30 or 40 feet to give the most efficient results. An actual 
test on a small ram costing $9, with 70 feet of supply pipe and 12 
feet of fall, showed that with 2.1 gallons per minute furnished to 
the ram, 0.3 gallon was delivered through 100 feet of pipe at a height 
of 50 feet above the ram. The only cost of operating is that of 
repairs. 

Although not in common use in southern Minnesota, rams have, 
nevertheless, been employed hi a number of instances. At Hokah 
one has been used to pump the water from a 544-foot well with a 
head of about 18 feet, to the village 30 or 40 feet above it. At 
Sterling Center several of the flowing wells are connected with rams 
and the water lifted to the houses on the higher lands. The same 
is true of the flowing-well district about the head of Straight River in 
southern Steele County and near Geneva in northern Freeborn 
County. The heads are usually from 10 to 15 feet, the lift 25 or 30 
feet, and the distance carried often several hundred feet. 

Rams are seldom used for pumping the water of springs, although 
in a number of instances this might readily be done. The largest 
springs, however, are often in deep valleys, such as those of the streams 
entering the Mississippi near the southeastern corner of the State. 
Here it would be necessary to lift the water greater distances than 
is practicable with rams. 



PROBLEMS RELATING TO WELLS. 95 

SCIENTIFIC PROSPECTING FOR WATER. 

In southern Minnesota, as in other sections of the country, pros- 
pecting for water has been conducted in a desultory manner, and 
but little attention has been given to securing or preserving definite 
information in regard to the water horizons penetrated in deep 
drilling. Many of the deepest wells have been sunk by the munici- 
palities, at considerable cost; with only slight additional expen- 
diture data in regard to the underground waters could have been 
obtained which would be of great permanent value to the com- 
munities concerned. Random methods are just as extravagant in 
securing water supplies as in any other line of work, and precise 
information is of equally great value. It is desired here to make a 
plea for more intelligent action in the future. 

Whenever a community goes to the expense of sinking a deep well 
it should at the same time secure a record of its underground water 
resources to the depth drilled, and the contract made with the driller 
should provide for it. Approximately the following procedure should 
be observed: 

1. Samples should be kept of all material penetrated and full 
descriptive notes made of everything found by the drill and of all 
difficulties or unusual conditions met in drilling. The record should 
include the exact thickness of each stratum and its depth beneath 
the surface. The drillings should be submitted for examination to 
a competent geologist. 

2. All water-bearing strata should be described in special detail. 
If the material consists of sand, gravel, or sandstone, it is important 
to note the porosity, induration, and size of grain, as well as varia- 
tions with depth in any of these. 

3. The height to which the water will naturally rise should be 
ascertained for each water-bearing stratum. The notes should state 
whether the water at higher levels was shut out by casing when the 
head was measured. 

4. At each depth at which a new supply is encountered the yield 
should be tested. The record must show not only the rate at which 
the well was pumped, but also the distance that the water level was 
lowered thereby, and the length of time that the pumping was con- 
tinued. The best method is to insert the suction pipe a definite 
depth into the water and then determine the rate of pumping required 
to lower the water level this distance. By raising and lowering 
the pump very precise results can be obtained. Where the forma- 
tion consists of incoherent sand that persists in coming into the 
well it may not be feasible to make accurate determinations of the 
yield, but in this case the general conditions should be described. 
In all instances it is necessary to note whether the water comes from 



96 UNDERGROUND WATERS 01 SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

only the lowest bed, the higher ones being shut out by casing, or 
whether water from different levels contributed to the yield. 

5. The quality of the water from each horizon should be ascer- 
tained, as important results may thus be produced. Great effort 
should be put forth to obtain samples from each source unadulter- 
ated by the water from other levels. It may not be feasible to have 
a complete analysis made of the water from each depth, but the 
temporary and permanent hardness can at least be determined, and a 
few other simple tests made, winch will throw much light upon the 
character of the water. 

6. In the well as finally completed, the length and diameter of the 
casing and the description of the screen (if one is required) should 
be noted in detail. The method of finishing the well, the difficulties 
encountered, and indeed the entire history of the process should be 
described. 

If the method above outlined is faithfully pursued, the community 
will have in its possession a reliable record of its water resources and 
underground conditions which will be of great intrinsic value. If a 
competent engineer or other person with expert knowledge is em- 
ployed to superintend the prospecting and to make and record the 
various tests, the data will of course be so much the more reliable 
and complete. In the future when new supplies are required for 
public waterworks, for industrial concerns, or for any other purpose, 
trustworthy information will be at hand, and this will make intelli- 
gent action possible and may show the way to a better supply than 
would otherwise be secured. Indeed, it may prove a distinct asset 
to the community, as far as industrial development is concerned. 
When, later, other deep wells are drilled, similar records should be 
kept, and these can then be compared and contrasted with the original 
and with each other, thus giving a body of information that will be 
far more comprehensive and reliable than the record of any single well. 

One of the greatest difficulties experienced, especially in the 
smaller settlements, is to retain such data as have been secured. 
With the frequent changes hi the official personnel, well records 
which were at first preserved are almost invariably lost sooner or 
later, and even the depth of the hole may become a matter of uncer- 
tainty. It is therefore important that special care be taken to 
preserve the record. Several copies should be made and deposited 
in different places for safe-keeping. It would be well to have one 
copy registered hi a county office in which permanent records are filed. 

If the drilling project ends unsuccessfully it should not be assumed 
that the record is, therefore, of no value. Negative facts are fre- 
quently worth as much as positive ones. Moreover, a knowledge of 
the difficulties that are to be expected may aid in a future drilling 
enterprise to overcome these obstacles and to achieve success. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 97 

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 

By 0. E. Meinzer. 

GENERAL STATEMENT AND TABLE. 

In connection with the field work upon which this report is based 
the public supplies in the cities and villages of southern Minnesota 
were thoroughly examined, especial attention being given to the 
geologic and sanitary aspects of the source of the water. The inves- 
tigations in 1907 were conducted in cooperation with the Minnesota 
state board of health, and mineral, sanitary-chemical, and bacterio- 
logical analyses of most of the supplies were made in their laboratories. 
Later, through correspondence with the superintendents of the 
various waterworks, the statistical data were verified and corrected 
for January 1, 1908. This revised body of information forms the 
basis upon which the following table of public water supplies was con- 
structed. For the most part, the sanitary data do not appear in this 
paper, but are in possession of the state board of health, to be used 
as occasion demands. The present chapter is little more than a 
summarized statement of the information presented in the table. 
60920°— wsp 256—11 7 



98 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



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114 



UNDERGROUND WATERS 0\- SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



CITIES AND VILLAGES EQUIPPED WITH PUBLIC WATERWORKS. 

The foregoing tabic includes all public waterworks (as far as known) 
that have pressure mains, anil also a few where no mains have been 
laid, the system furnishing a very limited service. It does not, 
however,, include villages provided merely with lire engine ami hose 
and an adequate source from which to pump, although their tire 
protection may be comparably good, DeGrnfV, Holland, N erst rand, 
Shakopee, Trosky, and Wabasso arc examples of this class. 

As is shown in a tabic below, nearly all the larger settlements ami 
many that are still very small are equipped witli systems of water- 
works. It will be seen that the list includes three-fourths o( the 
villages having a population between 500 ami 1,000 and one-half 
of those having between 250 and 500, as well as eight progressive 
hamlets whose population is still less. In all but five or six eases 
the waterworks are owned ami operated by the municipalities. 
Indeed, the great majority of the settlements are too small to attract 
private capital for such an enterprise. 

Number of cities and villages in southern Minnesota with public waterworks. 



Population. 


With 
water- 
works. 


Without 
water- 
works. 


Tor icnt 
with 
water- 
works. 


l ,ow or mora 


50 

.M 

S 

127 

ITS 


4 

IS 


95 


500 to 1,000 


74 


250 to 500 


50 










22 

74 


85 




71 










ISO 





USES OF PUBLIC WATERWORKS. 

The manifold and varied uses made of the water from public 
supplies may be grouped as follows: 

Public use: 

Fire protection. 

Public building;?- schools, etc. 

Sprinkling streets, irrigating parks?, etc. 
Domestic use: 

Prinking and cooking. 

Toilet and laundry. 

Disposal of sewage. 

Irrigation and sprinkling. 

Live stock. 
Industrial use: Poilor supplies, ote. 

In nearly all the smaller municipalities protection against tire 

is regarded as the primary function of a system of waterworks, all 
other uses being considered incidental and of minor importance. 
Indeed, experience lias proved that almost without exception, even 
in the smallest villages, the money expended in this way is saved 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 



115 



to the community before many years elapse, in the immunity from 
disastrous fires which is thus afforded. 

That the value of the public supply for domestic use; is not popu- 
larly appreciated is clearly proved by the data presented in the table 
below. As will be shown later, the waterworks have, as a rule, 
been efficiently equipped at considerable cost and are usually pro- 
vided with pure water. Considering only the municipalities in which 
waterworks have been installed, in nearly one-third of those having 
less than a thousand inhabitants the public supply remains virtually 
unused for domestic purposes, in less than one-fourth it is used by 50 
per cent of the population, and altogether it is used by only 25 per 
cent of the people residing in these villages. This failure to utilize 
the public supplies where they are available can be traced to several 
causes, the principal ones being as follows: (1) The fact that fire 
protection was the end in view when the waterworks were installed, 
and that the people are to a great extent oblivious to the other 
advantages brought within their reach; (2) a persistent but unwise 
prejudice in favor of private wells; and (3) the expense involved in 
making service connections and in paying for the water itself. 

The extent to which the public- supply is used by the people increases 
with the size of the settlements. Thus in the cities and villages 
having a population of more than 1,000, excluding Minneapolis and 
St. Paul, it is used by about 44 per cent of the inhabitants, while 
in the two large cities the great majority depend at least partly upon 
the public supplies. 

The industrial applications of the public water likewise increases 
with the population. The principal requirement of this character 
in many of the smaller towns is for the railway locomotives, which 
at numerous points are provided from the public supply. In the 
larger centers, however, the demands for water in various com- 
mercial operations are much more extensive, and the dependence of 
industry upon the public supply has become an important matter. 

Number of cities and villages in -which specified percentages of people use the public water 

supplies provided. 



Percentage of people using the public supply. 



Cities and villages 
with more than 
1,000 inhabit- 
ants. « 



Number. 



Per cent 
of total. 



Villages with less 
than 1,000 inhabit- 
ants. 



Number. 



Per cent 
of total. 



90 to 100 per cent. . . 

SO to 90 per cent 

25 to 50 per cent 

5 to 25 per cent 

Less than 5 per cent 



5.7 
42.9 
31.4 
14.3 

5.7 



6.6 

17.0 
18.0 
29.2 
29.2 



100. 



100. 



a Excluding Minneapolis and St. Paul. 



116 UNDERGROUND WATEKS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SOURCES OF SUPPLY. 

In selecting a public water supply the principal features that require 
attention are the following: (1) The quantity of water available, 
(2) the quality of the water, and (3) the cost. 

Quantity. — In estimating the quantity that can be drawn from any 
proposed source it is not usually sufficient to know the normal 
or average amount. Where only limited storage facilities are pro- 
vided, calculations should rather be based upon the minimum pro- 
duction — the supply afforded in the most protracted periods of 
drought. Likewise it is not safe to base estimates upon the average 
consumption. There will be times when much more than the ordi- 
nary amount of water will be used, and unless the supply is adequate 
to meet these unusual demands, much inconvenience will result. 
Moreover the seasons of minimum supply and maximum demand 
are likely to coincide. Finally, it is important to take into account 
the probable increase in population and industrial development, and 
to provide for the enlarged needs at least of the immediate future. 

Quality. — The quality of the water should be considered with 
reference to its sanitary character, agreeability, and mineral com- 
position. The numerous causes of pollution which exist in cities 
and villages render it relatively difficult and expensive to obtain 
water supplies that are removed from all danger of contamination. 
As will be shown later, a large proportion of the private wells in 
cities and villages are polluted, and it is therefore especially important 
that the public waterworks should be provided from a source that 
is carefully safeguarded. The agreeability of the water refers to 
those properties which render it pleasant or offensive to the senses; 
that is, its appearance, odor, taste, temperature, etc., without 
reference to its effect upon the health. An illustration is afforded 
by the " irony" water, so abundant in southern Minnesota. The 
iron in solution gives this water a characteristic taste, and upon 
precipitation renders it turbid. The water may be entirely whole- 
some, but the people frequently refuse to use it, and any supply 
that the people reject is a failure. Indeed, the popular preference 
for private wells and the prevalent disinclination to use the public 
water for drinking and culinary purposes is in large measure due to 
the fact that for the public supply agreeability is ignored and the 
water is not rendered attractive to the consumers. The mineral 
quality of the water has already been exhaustively discussed in a 
preceding chapter. 

For fire extinction, flushing of sewers, sprinkling of streets, etc., 
the quality of the water is of no consequence; for drinking and 
cooking the sanitary character and agreeability are important; while 
for bathing and laundry purposes, and for boiler and most other 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 117 

industrial uses, the mineral properties are important, as soft a water 
as possible usually being required. The mineral content is also a 
consideration for drinking and cooking purposes, and, less frequently 
in this area, for irrigation. 

Cost. — The cost includes (1) the original outlay for the well or other 
source and (2) the cost of operation. While there should be no 
hesitation in making the expenditures necessary to secure a source 
that is satisfactory both in quantity and quality, yet there has 
undoubtedly been too great a willingness on the part of many of the 
communities of this section to spend large sums of money in drilling 
deep wells where adequate and safe supplies could have been obtained 
at much less cost, and where the benefits expected to accure from the 
deep drilling were not of an essential character justifying the great 
expenditure even if they had been assured. Too often, especially in 
small municipalities where competent engineering advice is not 
employed, the cost of operation is not given sufficient weight when 
plans for installing a public supply are considered. The cost of pump- 
ing the water is an important matter, as it may be the determining 
factor in the use of the system by the public. 

Surface sources. — If a settlement is located near a river or lake, 
surface water can in most cases be obtained with less original cost 
and less expense for pumping than underground water. Moreover, 
there is ordinarily no limit to the quantity available, and it usually 
has the advantage of being softer and better adapted for bathing, 
laundry, and boiler purposes than underground water. On the other 
hand, it is more subject to pollution, and small communities do not 
find it feasible effectively to guard the source or to install and main- 
tain an efficient filter or other means of purification: A river is liable 
to be polluted by settlements upstream, while a lake may become 
locally contaminated by the sewage and wash from the settlement 
concerned. But, aside from the real merits of the case, a practical 
difficulty is the fact that the popular reluctance to use a public 
supply is much greater where surface water is drawn upon. 

Underground sources. — In regard to underground supplies there are 
a number of difficulties and disadvantages, those most commonly 
experienced being the following: The yield may be insufficient or 
not permanent; the expense of lifting the water to the surface may 
be great; the water may contain organic impurities; or it may be 
highly mineralized. In southern Minnesota the last-named diffi- 
culty is the most general and perhaps the most serious. 

Underground water derived from shallow sources may be impure. 
Open wells sunk into surficial deposits should be relied upon as safe 
only if their environs are protected from pollution. On the other 
hand, water from deep horizons is almost invariably free of organic 



118 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

impurity at its source, but, as has been shown by comparative chem- 
ical and bacteriological analyses, it frequently does not possess the 
same quality when it reaches the consumers. This is because of 
pollution at the well or in the reservoirs or other parts of the S3 r stem. 
The remedy for this condition is theoretically simple: If all parts of 
the system are kept tight the introduction of shallow water or sewage 
will be prevented, and the water will be delivered at the tap uncon- 
taminated. 

The introduction of organic matter may occur in any of the follow- 
ing ways: (1) Surface water may pass downward on the outside of 
the well casing and mingle with the deep water. Where there is a 
thin overlying impervious layer or none and the casing extends only 
a short distance down, there is perhaps considerable danger of pol- 
lution in this manner; but where there is an impervious bed of reason- 
able thickness and the casing projects well below the level to which 
the deep water rises, this cause of contamination can not be conceived 
to be common. (2) The casing may leak. If a suction pump is 
used (the well casing acting also as the pump pipe) water at or near 
the surface may be drawn into the system; otherwise it may flow in 
more slowly. (3) The casing may extend only up to the bottom of 
the manhole or "pit" of the well, and the leakage from the pump 
together with ground water and surface wash may enter the 
manhole and flow into the well. A large proportion of the drilled 
wells used for public supplies in southern Minnesota are intentionally 
so finished that they serve also as drains for the waste water — an 
arrangement that deserves condemnation. A better method is to 
dispense with the manhole altogether and to brmg the casing above 
the surface of the ground. (4) Water is sometimes conducted by 
gravity from the source to a reservoir, especially where springs at 
some distance from the settlement are utilized. Since there is no 
pressure in the pipes or mains in such a system, surface water or sew- 
age may enter where leaks occur. If the water in the pipes is under 
constant pressure there is no danger of pollution, since any opening 
will then allow water to escape but will not permit anything to enter. 
(5) Reservoirs sunk into the ground are seldom entirely waterproof, 
and where they are employed, contaminating agencies should be kept 
at a distance. Moreover the reservoir should have its top built well 
above the ground and should be kept as nearly filled as possible, so 
that the pressure will be outward and polluting liquids will get no 
opportunity to enter. In no case should the water be stored in cis- 
terns placed under the pump house. It is obvious that there is no 
advantage in having a deep-water supply if the water is allowed to 
be exposed to contamination anywhere in its journey from the source 
to the consumer's tap. However, as has already been said, the 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 



119 



principles involved in preventing pollution are for the most part 
simple, and consist substantially in the application of common sense 
all along the line. 

Data for southern Minnesota. — The following table shows the sources 
from which the public waterworks in southern Minnesota are supplied : 

Sources of public water supplies in southern Minnesota. 



Source. 


Number. 


Per cent. 


Wells 


162 
8 
7 
6 
3 


87 




4 




4 




3 




2 










186 


100 



About 91 per cent of the waterworks are provided with under- 
ground water; about 67 per cent, or approximately two-thirds, from 
drilled wells more than 100 feet deep. Although small glacial lakes 
are remarkably numerous throughout most of this region, they are 
utilized by only a few communities as a source for public supplies. 
Of the few villages which use surface water, in perhaps the majority 
the supply is intended for fire protection only (for example, Silver 
Lake and New London) ; while in several others it is utilized because 
a satisfactory underground source is wanting (for example, Granite 
Falls and Cottonwood) ; in only a very few is the water used exten- 
sively for drinking and cooking. 

The following table shows the geologic sources of the underground 
water used for public supplies. Where the water is drawn from 
different sources, only the principal one is considered; supplies 
whose geologic source is in doubt are omitted from the tabulation. 

Sources of underground water used for public supplies in southern Minnesota. 



Source. 



Number. 



Per cent. 



Alluvium and outwash deposits 

Glacial drift 

Total surface deposits 

Cretaceous system 

Platteville, Galena, and higher Paleozoic formations 

St. Peter sandstone 

Shakopee dolomite, New Richmond sandstone, and Oneota dolomite 

Jordan sandstone 

Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales 

Total Paleozoic 

Sioux quartzite 



16 


10 


60 


39 


76 


49 


9 


6 


14 


9 


13 


8 


5 


3 


IS 


10 


19 


12 


66 


42 


4 


3 



100 



120 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Air !_,_ 
pump I 



-Natural head 



Water 
Air 

-Air 



METHODS OF LIFTING WATER. 

The type of pump employed for bringing water to the surface 
depends to a great extent on the depth from which it must be raised. 
If the lift is less than the height of a water column that will balance 
the pressure of the atmosphere, the pump can be stationed at the 
surface and the water can be raised by means of a suction pipe let 
into the well; but if the water stands at a lower level, the pump 
must be let down into the well. The cost of pumping is much less 
where the water rises near enough to the surface to make it possible 
to pump by suction. Deep-well pumps are necessarily limited in 
their capacity, are expensive to keep in repair, and work at a me- 
chanical disadvantage. However, where the 
water stands low in the wells or is lowered 
very much by pumping, this is usually the 
only feasible way of lifting it. A third 
method which is employed at several places, 
but has not yet come into general use, is 
known as the air lift. This is a very simple 
device. An iron pipe is placed in the well, 
extending from the top nearly to the bot- 
tom. Air is driven down the pipe. Escap- 
ing near the bottom of the well far below 
the water level, the air displaces the water 
and lessens the weight of the water column 
sufficiently so that the water will rise and 
discharge from the well (fig. 9). This 
method is not limited absolutely by the 
depth to the water, but it is most successful 
where the water rises nearly to the surface. 
The following table shows the various methods used in southern 
Minnesota : 

Methods of lifting water to the surface in public veils. 

Deep-well pumps 79 

Suction pumps 37 

Natural flow 17 

Air lifts 5 

Deep-well and suction pumps 1 

Deep-well pumps and natural flow 1 

Deep-well pump and air lift 1 

Suction pump and air lift 1 

Suction pumps and natural flow 6 

148 
Much interest is being manifested in the air lift, and it seems 
probable that it could be advantageously used in some wells where 
pumps are at present employed. For these reasons the data in re- 
gard to the air lifts now installed are given in the following table: 



-fc-^-'S-VVater 
Figure 9. — Diagram showing the 
principle of the air lift. 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 

Data in regard to air lifts in public water wells. 



121 



City or village. 



Blue Earth . 

Boyd 

Brownton . . 

New Prague 

Pipestone... 
Sleepy Eye. 
Waseca 



Depth of 

well. 



Feet. 
672 
62 
304 
289 
200 
350 
222 
600 
1,157 



Depth of 

water in 

well. 



Feet. 
640 
54 
280 
173 
104 
254 
177 
475 
1,032 



Ratio. 



0.95 
.87 
.92 
.60 
.52 
.73 



Yield 
per 

minute. 



Gallons. 
350 



25 to 50 
140 
100 
100 



POWER. 



The following table shows the different methods of generating 
power at the various pumping stations: 

Power used at public pumping stations in southern Minnesota. 



Over 1,000 


Less than 


inhabit- 


1,000 in- 


ants. 


habitants. 


9 


75 


44 


11 


4 


1 





1 


1 





1 





3 


5 


62 


93 



Total. 



Internal combustion engines (gasoline and gas) 

Steam engines 

Electric motors 

Windmills 

Water power 

Artesian pressure 

Combinations 

Total reported 



The great convenience of gasoline engines in the pumping stations 
of the smaller villages is obvious, and the table shows how largely 
this relatively new device for applying energy is being employed. 
In most of the cities and larger villages, where more expensive ma- 
chinery has been installed and where more pow r er is required and 
longer hours of pumping are necessary, the steam engine has for the 
most part been retained. Water power is used (directly or indirectly) 
at three pumping stations, windmills in three, and an hydraulic ram 
in one. Where windmills, hydraulic ram, or artesian pressure are 
employed, there is usually an arrangement by which gasoline or 
steam engines can be used in case of fire or other emergency. 

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION. 

In order to make the water available it is essential that it be forced 
to all parts of the system of mains and branch pipes. For ordinary 
purposes it is only necessary to have sufficient pressure to deliver 
the water readily from the taps at the highest elevations at which 
it is to be used, but in case of fire the system is not effective unless 
the pressure is great enough to project the water forcibly for some 



122 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

distance so that it can be lodged in quantity in the heart of the 
flames and at other inaccessible points. The following table shows 
the different methods employed in southern Minnesota for applying 
both the domestic and fire pressures: 

Number of public water systems using specified methods of applying pressure. 



Gravity o 

Direct from pump 

Compressed air 

Direct from source (natural head ) . 
No pressure 



Total reported . 



a Hydrostatic pressure from a standpipe, a tanlc mounted upon a tower, or a reservoir situated on ele- 
vated ground. ' 

Closely related to the question of pressure is that of storage. 
There are several principal reasons for storing water. It is frequently 
a matter of economy. Where the consumption is small, the supply 
for one or more days can be pumped in a few hours, and by stor- 
ing it at an elevation or under compressed air a nearly constant 
pressure can be maintained without further attention. In many 
cases storage is required in order to provide adequate protection 
against fire, for unless the rate at which the source and pumps can 
furnish water is equal to the rate at which the water will be used in 
case of fire it is necessary to maintain a reserve supply. It is evi- 
dent that these reasons for storing water apply to small villages 
rather than to large cities. Where the normal consumption is great 
it ni&j become economical to keep the plant in continuous operation 
and to pump directly from the source into the mains, thus exerting 
direct pressure and dispensing with all reservoirs. Moreover, the 
capacity of the source and pumps is necessarily so great that extra 
demands in case of fire can easily be met. 

There are many possible combinations for storage and distribu- 
tion, each of which has certain advantages and disadvantages. The 
particular combination best adapted for any given municipality 
depends upon the conditions to be met, involving a large number of 
intricately interdependent factors. 

For fire protection it is necessary to have (1) a strong pressure, 
(2) a sure pressure, and (3) an ample reserve of water. It is impor- 
tant at this point to emphasize the fact, too often overlooked, that 
in small settlements where fires are infrequent and where it is not 
feasible to support a well-disciplined fire department, the weak 
feature in the system, as far as fire protection is concerned, most 
commonly consists in not providing for a pressure that can be 
depended on. Where reliance is placed upon machinery not in 
operation every day or at least every week, or upon the concerted 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 



123 



action of men not constantly working together, the fire protection is 
very much poorer than it appears to be. In villages the protection 
is good in proportion as the human element in the system is elimi- 
nated. In most of the large cities where the system is extensive the 
domestic pressure is kept constant and relatively low, while special 
pressure is obtained in case of fire by the use of portable fire engines; 
but in smaller cities better results are invariably secured by applying 
the pressure to the entire system by means of the pumps at the 
pumping station, the pressure thus being obtained more promptly 
and certainly; and in the villages gravity pressure is found to 
be the surest. Any system employing compressed air or direct 
pumping relies upon the working of an engine and pump (in a vil- 
lage generally a gasoline engine), and since it is impossible to have as 
good machinery or as well- trained engineers in a village as in a city, 
the danger of a breakdown at the critical moment is much greater, 
and experience has shown that it is not uncommon for the engine to 
refuse to work at the very time when it is most needed. A good 
arrangement adopted in many villages is to have gravity pressure 
which can be reinforced by direct pumping. 

Underground reservoirs are liable to pollution, and where storage 
is required it is therefore desirable to employ either compression 
chambers or reservoirs so high as to be above the reach of contam- 
ination by sewage. Mechanical considerations frequently require 
reservoirs at or near the surface. Thus where deep-well pumps 
must be used it is often advantageous to allow these to discharge 
into surface reservoirs, and to utilize duplex or triplex force pumps 
for raising the water higher, rather than to compel the deep-well 
pumps to make the entire lift; also where air lifts are installed it is 
generally necessary to have a surface reservoir into which the water 
may be discharged; but in such cases it may be advisable to build 
the reservoir just above the surface rather than to sink it into the 
ground. 

CONSUMPTION OF WATER. 

The following table gives approximately the amount of public 
water consumed in southern Minnesota: 

Consumption of water from public supplies in southern Minnesota. 





Total daily 
consumption. 


Total num- 
ber of 
people 
supplied. 


Average 
daily con- 
sumption 
per capita. 




Gallons.- 

17,591,854 

• 10,781,044 

8,911,000 

695,000 


"261,974 

a 197,023 

106,490 

16,221 


Gallons. 
67 


St. Paul : 


55 


Other cities and villages with more than 1,000 inhabitants 


84 
43 








37,978,898 


581,708 


65 



a The total population according to the 1905 census is here given. 



124 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

It should be understood that the above figures generally represent 
only rude estimates and include certain vitiating factors which destroy 
their value for drawing refined inferences. The daily per capita con- 
sumption is derived by dividing the total daily consumption by 
the number of people supplied; but this gives a result uniformly too 
high, since under ' ' total consumption " are included the water used for 
industrial and public purposes and also that lost through leakage — a 
by no means inconsiderable amount. It is not easy to allow even 
approximately for the last-named items. Although industrial con- 
sumption increases with the population, the proportion of people 
in the smaller communities using the public supply is so low, and 
in so many places large amounts of water are sold to the railway 
companies for use in locomotives, that it is not at all evident that 
the per capita allowance should be greater in the large than in 
the small municipalities. The per capita estimates for Minneapolis 
and St. Paul are rendered relatively too low by the fact that they 
are based upon the total population. From a general consideration 
of the subject it seems safe to say that, on an average, village inhab- 
itants (those provided with public supplies) consume less water than 
the residents of cities; and it is believed that the chief explanation of 
this difference is that the latter have better facilities for applying 
water to useful purposes (bathrooms, sewage disposal, irrigating 
lawns, etc.) than the former, and moreover have learned to use 
these facilities more liberally. 

PRICE CHARGED. 

The following table shows the methods of charging for water, in so 
far as they have been reported : 

Number of cities and villages using specified methods of charging for water. 

Flat rates 55 

Meter rates 34 

Both flat and meter rates 31 

Free 3 

Total number reporting price 123 

The method of installing meters and charging for the water actu- 
ally used is found to be much more satisfactory than that of collecting 
a fixed (or flat) rate per annum. By the latter method a small 
proportion of the consumers frequently waste more than is used by 
all of the rest of the community. 

The relative prevalence of different minimum flat rates (including 
the minimum charge where meters are used) is shown below. In 
most towns meter rates are arranged according to a sliding scale, the 
larger consumer getting a better rate than the person using only a 
small quantity of water. 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 125 

Number of cities and villages having specified minimum annual flat rates (including 
minimum charges where meters are used). 

Free 3 

$2 1 

$3 10 

$3.75 1 

$4 13 

$4.50 1 

$4.75 2 

$5 36 

$5 .40 1 

$6 19 

$8 1 

$9 1 

$12 : 2 

$18 1 

In the following statement the relative prevalence of different 
maximum meter rates is shown. The maximum rates represent most 
closely the price paid for domestic consumption. The average 
maximum rate is 33 cents per 1,000 gallons. 

Number of cities and villages having specified maximum meter rates per 1,000 gallons. 

8 cents 1 

10 cents 1 

12 cents 1 

13 cents 1 

14 cents 1 

15 cents 1 

20 cents 8 

25 cents 11 

27 cents 3 

30 cents 7 

33 cents 1 

35 cents 1 

40 cents 12 

45 cents 1 

47 cents 2 

50 cents 7 

53 cents 1 

56 cents " 1 

80 cents 2 

$1 1 

Although in most instances the price is not high, it appears for- 
midable to many village inhabitants who have always been accus- 
tomed to think of water as a commodity that nature furnishes free 
to all, and with many of the people this is the real barrier to the 
use of the public supply. In a large proportion of the smaller vil- 
lages so little use is made of the waterworks that the resulting reve- 
nue is almost negligible. These communities have already gone 
to great expense to install the system, and they are paying a 



126 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

considerable sum each year for maintenance and operation. The 

additional cost involved in furnishing the domestic supplies for all the 
people wonld not he great. In view of these Pacts it is pertinent 
to raise the question whether it would not be good public policy 
for municipalities of this class to furnish water for domestic pur- 
poses free of charge anil (o pay for the maintenance ami operation 
of the waterworks wholly by taxation. The conditions at Ilanley 
Falls, described in the report on Yellow Medicine County, are instruc- 
tive in this connection. In this village the water is supplied free 
and is used by all the people. There is no extra expense for serv- 
ices, since the village marshal attends to the pumping, as the usage 
is in many other villages. Almost the only additional cost is for 
gasoline to run the engine, and this is nearly negligible. The daily 
per capita consumption is only about 30 gallons, which fact shows 
that there is little disposition on the part of the people to abuse 
their privilege. Indeed, the total consumption is not much greater 
than in some villages where the supply is almost unused for domestic 
purposes, but where the water is wantonly squandered at a few taps 
for which a flat rate of only a few dollars is annually paid. 

THE SANITARY PROBLEM. 

The domestic water supply for a great majority of the village 
inhabitants of southern Minnesota is derived from shallow, open 
wells, a situation resulting from the geologic conditions already 
described. Since few villages have sewers, these wells are necessa- 
rily near one or more privies or cesspools. In order to ascertain to 
what extent they are affected by these sources of pollution, water was 
analyzed from eleven private dug or bored wells situated in as many 
different villages. These wells are believed to be fairly representa- 
tive of the most common type in use in the smaller settlements, as 
care was taken to select only such as were not more exposed to pol- 
lution than the average. The water of nearly all these wells is used 
extensively for drinking and cooking. Water from ten of them 
showed the presence of Bacillus coli, which is considered a conclu- 
sive evidence of contamination by human or other animal excreta. 
In the water from the eleventh well the results were uncertain, but 
there were some indications of B. volt. A brief description of the 
wells follows : 

1. Well about 2 toot in diameter and 40 feet deep, cased with wood. Hotel privy 

about 30 feet distant. The water is used extensively for drinking and cooking. 
B. coli found in the water. 

2. Well about 2 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, eased with tile. The surround- 

ings are clean and tidy. Privy 20 or 25 feet distant. The water is used 
for drinking and cooking. B. coli present. 

3. Well 18 inches in diameter and 50 feet deep, eased with tile. Hotel privy about 

50 feet distant. The water is used extensively for drinking ami cooking. B. 
coli present. 



PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. 127 

4. A dug well 37 feet deep, cased with boards. Privy and stable about 50 feet dis- 

tant. The water is used for drinking and cooking. B. coli present. 

5. A bored well of the usual construction and with the usual surroundings. Water 

used extensively for drinking and cooking. B. coli present. 

6. Well 2 feet in diameter and about 30 feet deep, cased with wood. There is a 

privy 75 feet distant. The water is used for drinking and cooking. B. coli 
present. 

7. Well 2 feet in diameter and 25 feet deep, cased with glazed tile. A privy is 50 

feet from the well. B. coli present. 

8. Well 2\ feet in diameter and 35 feet deep, cased with wood. Privy is 40 feet dis- 

tant. The water is used for domestic purposes. B. coli present. 

9. A shallow, private bored well' of usual construction and surroundings. Used exten- 

sively for drinking and cooking. B. coli present. 

10. Well about 3 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep, cased with brick. The surround- 

ings are clean and tidy. Privy 80 feet distant on lower ground. Dwellings 
near by on higher ground. Water used for drinking and cooking. B. coli 
present. 

11. Well 2 feet in diameter and 22 feet deep, cased with wood. The casing is in 

good condition, and the ground is graded up around the well. Two privies 
at distances of about 80 and 100 feet, respectively. Stable nearer the well. 
Water used for domestic purposes. The results of the analysis were not con- 
clusive, but there were some indications of B. coli. 

It can not be affirmed that the bacillus is in all cases derived from 
the environing privies; in some instances it may be washed into 
the well with the fasces of domestic animals, or it may be introduced 
in other conceivable ways. Neither is it intended here to imply 
that all this water is dangerous to health. Nevertheless it must be 
admitted by everyone that the situation is far from satisfactory 
from either a sanitary or an esthetic point of view. 

In conclusion, it is desired to make a plea for higher ideals of 
cleanliness and sanitation in the villages of southern Minnesota. 
Either a system of waterworks or a system of sewers is incomplete 
in itself. Every community should aim to procure an adequate 
and safe source of water supply, to install an efficient system of 
waterworks with mains reaching as nearly as possible to every home, 
and to construct an approved and extensive system of sewers. The 
people should then avail themselves of the opportunity afforded, 
thus securing pure water for drinking and cooking, an abundant 
and convenient supply for toilet and laundry purposes, and an 
effective, cleanly, and sanitary method of disposing of sewage and 
waste water. 

It is commonly objected that such a system of waterworks and 
sewers would be financially ruinous to an ordinary village, but this 
need not be so if it is rightly planned in the beginning. A common 
difficulty is that too much is expended upon makeshifts. A source 
is obtained which is unsatisfactory or inadequate; a tank that is 
too small is erected upon a tower that is too low; mains are laid 
which are too small or are inferior in quality; and if a sewer is con- 
structed it is improperly built or not laid deep enough to make its 



128 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

extension feasible. The result is that money must constantly be 
spent for reconstructing defective parts, and no progress can be 
made in extending the system. Every village, when it first takes up 
the problem^ should, with the aid of expert engineering advice, plan 
a complete system that will be satisfactory and adequate for the 
present and for a considerable time to come. The essential portions 
of the system should first be provided, and future expenditures can 
then be applied to extension rather than to remodeling. 

In progress toward ideal conditions the main reliance must be 
placed in the education of the people in the elementary principles 
of sanitation. When once they comprehend that in drinking the 
"clear, cold" water from their shallow private wells they are imbib- 
ing the bacteria-laden seepage from their privies or barnyards, and 
when, furthermore, they understand that better conditions are 
within their reach, they will be ready to do their part in the work 
of improvement. 

DESCRIPTIONS BY COUNTIES. 

ANOKA COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The upland surface of Anoka County is comparatively low, aver- 
aging but little over 900 feet above sea level and only about 100 feet 
above Mississippi River. In general it is flat or gently undulating, 
with many broad shallow sags occupied by swamps or lakes, but in 
the extreme northwest it consists of morainic hills. The streams 
occupy shallow valleys which do not affect to any extent the general 
character of the country. Everywhere the surface of the county 
indicates a recent origin. It has been modified but little since the 
glaciers withdrew from it. 
r 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The glacial drift has considerable thickness, but is exposed at the 
surface chiefly along the southeastern edge and in several small areas 
on the western border of the county; elsewhere it is covered by out- 
wash deposits. It is prevailingly clayey, but in places is sandy and 
may include layers of clear sand or gravel which contain considera- 
ble amounts of water but do not yield it as generously as the sand- 
stones beneath the drift. The red clay was doubtless derived from 
the Lake Superior region, its color being due to the decomposition 
of the basic eruptive rocks; the blue clay, which overlies the red, 
was deposited in part by glaciers from the northwest, and is derived, 
in large part at least, from the Ordovician and Cretaceous shales. 



ANOKA COUNTY. 129 

The outwash deposits consist of gravel and sand 20 to 50 feet thick, 
laid down by streams issuing from the melting ice sheet and flowing 
over the flat upland surface. The materials thus deposited cover by 
far the greater part of the surface of Anoka County, being absent in 
only a few narrow strips along the eastern and western edges. Be- 
cause of their open and porous character they readily absorb the 
rain falling on their surface. Hence they are saturated wherever 
they lie below drainage level, and will usually yield supplies adequate 
for domestic and farm purposes. 

Alluvial deposits are limited to narrow strips along Mississippi 
and Rum rivers and several smaller streams. They generally con- 
tain water and afford supplies to many private wells. 

In Grow Township, north of Anoka, dunes are prominently devel- 
oped, forming hills of very clean sand 10 to 30 feet in height. They 
readily absorb the rain falling on them, but because of their exposed 
position are of little consequence as a source of water supply. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

The Platteville limestone is represented in this county only by the 
basal 25 feet or more found in a few small areas in the extreme south- 
ern portion of the county. 

Below the Platteville is the St. Peter sandstone, which extends 
over much of the southern half of the county. Because of the thick- 
ness of the overlying drift and the abundance of water that it usually 
contains, very few wells have been sunk into the St. Peter, but wells 
drilled at Centerville penetrate it, finding rather large supplies. 
Locally water from this formation is under considerable head and 
rises nearly or quite to the surface. 

Next below the St. Peter lies the Prairie du Chien group, consisting, 
in succession, of the Shakopee dolomite, New Richmond sandstone, 
and Oneota dolomite. The Shakopee is probably about 35 feet thick. 
The exact position of the area in which it lies immediately beneath 
the drift has not been definitely determined, but it is known to extend 
in the southern part of the county from the east edge westward and 
southwestward, crossing Mississippi River near Anoka. The New 
Richmond is a thin bed, but carries considerable water and will 
afford satisfactory supplies to private wells. The Oneota extends 
across the county probably from near the northeast corner to the 
river, a little west of Anoka. It is compact and contains little water. 

The Jordan sandstone, which is next beneath the Oneota, under- 
lies a considerable area of the county and is a strong water-bearing 
formation. 

Below the Jordan are the St. Lawrence formation, the Dresbach 
sandstone and underlying shales, and the red clastic series, the latter 
resting upon granite. The St. Lawrence formation, characterized 
60920°— wsp 256—11 9 



130 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



by considerable green sand with green shale partings, probably under- 
lies the county throughout practically its whole extent, although it 
has been reached by wells in but few localities. The Dresbach sand- 
stone and underlying shales underlie all of Anoka County and make 
a strong water zone. At Elk River, less than 3 miles east of this 
county, the red clastic series has been penetrated to a depth of 215 
feet. Granite was encountered at St. Francis at the depth of 550 
feet, and outcrops are found only 20 miles from the northern border 
of the county. 

At several points in the vicinity of Center ville Lake, wells have 
been sunk for the city of St. Paul. Below is given the record of one 
of these wells which at the surface is 883 feet above sea level and 
ends at about 404 feet above sea level. 

Section of well near Centerville Ldke. a 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift: 

Black muck 

Blue clay 

Sandy clay 

"Hard pan " 

Sand and gravel 

Clay 

St. Peter: 

Sandstone (remnant) 

Shakopee: 

Magnesian limestone 

New Richmond: 

Soft sand 

Oneota: 

Hard magnesian limestone 

Jordan: 

Sandstone 

St. Lawrence: 

Green and blue shale (penetrated) . 



Feet. 
4 
8 
30 
10 
72 
10 

12 

33 

7 
127 



Feet. 

4 

12 

42 

52 

124 

134 

146 

179 

186 

313 

400 

479 



a Fourteenth Ann. Rept. St. Paul Board of Water Commissioners, 1895, p. 134. 

At Anoka the stratigraphic section begins approximately at the 
horizon at which the Centerville wells end. The first formation 
encountered below the surface deposits, which here are 80 feet thick 
and consist of alluvial and outwash materials and red bowlder clay, 
is a 40-foot layer of soft blue shale, beneath which there is a series of 
harder layers, most of which are probably more indurated shales. 
The old well of the Minnesota Potato Starch Company is 390 feet 
deep and is reported to have entered a white sandstone to a depth 
of 30 feet. The new well owned by the same company is 420 feet 
deep and has penetrated this sandstone somewhat farther. The 
lower portion of the section revealed by these wells no doubt belongs 
to the Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Yield of water. — Owing to the fact that a great sheet of out-wash 
sand and gravel lies at the surface throughout most of the county 



ANOKA COUNTY. 131 

and is underlain by a bed of impervious bowlder clay, the conditions 
are unusually favorable for obtaining generous and permanent sup- 
plies of water at shallow depths. For larger supplies the various 
sandstones described above can be penetrated. The heaviest de- 
mands upon the underground water are made in the southeastern 
corner of the county, where on occasions millions of gallons are 
pumped in one day for the St. Paul public supply. 

Head of the water. — In the Mississippi Valley above Anoka and also 
some distance below that city, as well as in the lower portion of the 
valley of Rum River, the water from the deeper sandstones will rise 
above the surface, and flowing wells can be obtained. Both of the 
deep wells of the Minnesota Potato Starch Company at Anoka flow 
at the surface. In the new well the water will rise about 20 feet 
above the level of Rum River, or 880 feet above sea level. This well 
is 8 inches in diameter, and with the top of the casing at approxi- 
mately 867 feet above sea level the natural flow is about 210 gallons 
per minute. Advantage has not yet been taken of the artesian con- 
ditions in the vicinity of Anoka, although they have considerable 
potential value. More wells should be drilled into the deep sand- 
stone, and no water should be allowed to run to waste, as this will 
inevitably deplete the supply and diminish the artesian pressure. 

On the uplands the water from the sandstones will rise nearly to 
the surface, but probably no flows can be obtained. In the deep wells 
at Centerville the water rises virtually to the surface or 883 feet above 
sea level, and in the deep well of the St. Francis Potato Starch Com- 
pany, at St. Francis, near the opposite corner of the county, the water 
also rises within a few feet of the surface. 

Quality of the water. — The water from the outwash sand and gravel, 
as well as that from the sandstone formations, is moderately hard, 
but not excessively mineralized. An analysis of water from each 
source is given below. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Unfailing supplies for farm and domestic purposes can generally 
be obtained from the porous sand and gravel near the surface. Where 
larger supplies are required or where a source less exposed to pollut- 
ing agencies is sought, drilling should be continued to the underlying 
sandstones. In the valleys and on some of the terraces of the Missis- 
sippi and its principal tributaries, flowing wells can be obtained from 
the deeper horizons, and throughout the county the water is under 
sufficient head to rise nearly to the surface. 

The only city that has a system of waterworks is Anoka. The 
plant is owned by a private company and the water is taken from 
Rum River. 



132 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Mineral analyses of water in Anoka Count)/. 
[Parts per million.] 



Silica (SiOs) 17 

Iron ( Fe) 1.1 

Calcium (Ca) 19 

Magnesium (Mg) 12 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) 12 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (I1C0 3 ) 142 

Sulphate radicle (SOi) 2 

Chlorine (CI) 1 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Total solids 149 



8.8 
1.2 
65 
IS 
31 

.0 

264 

20 

48 

.0 

332 



1. Spring; at Itasca in outwash gravel. Analysis by C. W. Drew. 

2. Tlie new flowing well of the Minnesota Potato Starch Company at Anoka, 420 feet deep, in the Dres- 
bach sandstone and underlying shales. Analysis made for this Survey December 9, 1907, by 11. A. Whit- 
taker, chemist Minnesota state board of health. 

BIGSTONE COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The greater part of Bigstone County consists of a nearly level 
upland plain about 1,100 feet above sea level, abruptly limited on 
the west and south by a broad, deep valley, incised to a depth of 125 
to 150 feet below its surface. This valley, which is now occupied by 
Lake Traverse, Bigstone Lake, and Minnesota River, originated at a 
time when the present outlet of Red River of the North was blocked 
by an ice sheet and its discharge forced southward. The lakes are 
due to the dams that have been thrown across the valley by the small, 
swift streams tributary to it. The alluvial fan of Little Minnesota 
River forms the dam that separates Lake Traverse from Bigstone 
Lake, and is thus the divide between the Mississippi and Hudson 
Bay drainage basins. The upland plain is for the most part very 
poorly drained and abounds in small lakes. Immediately adjacent 
to the valley there are many short gulleys, but they are of such slight 
extent that they interrupt the regularity of the upland surface but 
little. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift consists of bowlder clay and deposits 
of sand and gravel. The latter are usually interbedded with the 
bowlder clay, but locally lie at the surface. In the valley the drift 
and older formations are generally concealed beneath a thin layer of 
recently deposited alluvium. 

Considering only the uneroded upland areas, the drift sheet is most 
attenuated in the southern and in the northwestern and northeast- 
ern parts of the county, where it is in many places not much over 
100 feet thick, and is most developed in the central portion, where it 
is locally more than 300 feet thick. In the valley, for some miles 
south from the northern boundary of the county, older formations 



BIGSTONE COUNTY. 133 

are virtually at the surface; and the same is true below Ortonville 
(PL II). 

Yield of water. — The sand and gravel beds at various depths in the 
drift are generally saturated with water, which they deliver to wells 
at greatly differing rates. In most localities, however, there is at 
least one bed that will furnish enough for all ordinary purposes. In 
general it is more difficult to get satisfactory supplies from the drift 
in the northern than in the southern part of the county, apparently 
because there are fewer beds of coarse sand. 

In the region between Odessa and Appleton, and in other sections 
of the county, the sand and gravel that lies at the surface yields water 
freely. 

Head of the water. — Only one flowing well supplied from the drift 
has been recorded in the county. This well is on the farm of Albert 
Struck, a short distance northwest of Correll (NE. J sec. 7, T. 121 N., 
R. 44 W.), and is 186 feet deep. Along the sides of the valley there 
are numerous springs, all of which are fed by the waters that saturate 
the drift. Springs of this kind furnish the public supply of Brown 
Valley and are largely drawn upon at Ortonville. The drainage of 
the drift waters toward the valley lowers the head beneath the uplands 
at all points near the valley border. Throughout most of the county 
the water in the deeper wells remains at some distance below the sur- 
face, but northward it rises increasingly near the surface, and about 
10 miles beyond the county line flowing wells are obtained. 

Quality of the water. — None of the water from the glacial drift is 
soft, and some of it is extremely hard and very highly mineralized. 
The analyses in the accompanying table seem to show that water from 
the upper portion is apt to be harder than that from the deeper beds, 
and also that it is generally harder in the northern than in the south- 
ern part of the county. However, the water from the sand and gravel 
deposits at the surface may contain only moderate amounts of min- 
eral matter in solution. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — The Cretaceous rocks consist of soft blue shale 
("soapstone") and interbedded sandstone strata. A small shale 
outcrop occurs in the valley near the north end of Bigstone Lake 
(sec. 23, T. 124 N., R. 49 W.), and another has been described by 
N. H. Winchell on the Dakota side nearly opposite the northwestern 
corner of this county. a For some miles along the valley these shales 
he near the surface, but no other exposures have yet been observed. 
The well sections shown in Plate VII illustrate the character of the 
Cretaceous rocks in this region. They have considerable thickness 
in the northwestern part of the county, but thin out toward the east 

a Second Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1873, p. 190. 



134 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



and especially toward the southeast, a condition resulting in part 
from the irregularities of their upper surface, but chiefly from the 
inclination of the granitic surface upon which they rest. 

Altitude of granitic surface and thickness of overlying Cretaceous rocks, Bigstone County. 



Locality. 



Brown Valley. . 

Graeeville 

East of Johnson 

Dumont 

Ortonville 

Appleton 




Altitude 

of top of 

Cretaceous 

rocks above 

sea level. 



Thickness 

of 

Cretaceous 

rocks. 



Feet. 


Feet. 


980 


440 


830 


200 


900 


50 


875 


35 













Yield of water. — Sandstone strata usually produce liberal supplies 
of water. An example is the new village well at Graeeville, which has 
been pumped for 48 hours continuously at the rate of 60 gallons per 
minute. But in a large portion of the county, especially in the 
eastern and southern parts where the series is thin, there is nothing 
but shale, and no water-bearing beds are found. 

Head of the water. — In the valley, from the northern boundary of 
the county for some miles southward, the Cretaceous sandstone gives 
rise to flowing wells. Both of the deep village wells at Brown Valley 
overflow at the surface, the upper of the two at 1,014 feet above sea 
level. There is also a flowing well 6 miles south of this village (sec. 
25, T. 124 N., R. 49 W.), but it has not been determined how much 
farther down the valley flows could be secured. At Graeeville the 
Cretaceous water rises to a level about 70 feet below the surface or 
1,040 feet above the sea, and at Dumont, 10 miles north, it is lifted 
virtually to the surface, which is about 1,040 feet above sea level. 
In Bigstone County flowing wells can be expected only in the valley. 

Quality of water. — The water from the Cretaceous rocks is soft, in 
which respect it is radically different from the water of more shallow 
sources. It is, however, very rich in alkali sulphates and chlorides. 
Especially is this true at Brown Valley. (See the analyses in the 
accompanying table and also PL V.) 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 

The Archean system includes several types of crystalline rocks. 
The drillings from the wells at Brown Valley and Graeeville consist 
of mica schist, but the rocks exposed near Ortonville are granite and 
gneiss. The upper portion of the system is usually greatly decom- 
posed where it is overlain by Cretaceous strata which protected it 
from glacial erosion. One of the decomposition products especially 
conspicuous in some localities is a white kaolin. The Archean rocks 
are reached at different depths down to about 600 feet. They 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE ' 



Feet above- 
level 



Brown Valley 



Graceville 



Vicinity of Clinton 



Dumont 






- 700- 



H500-U 
< 



Blue shale 



Yellow clay 



Blue clay- 



Sand and gravel 
Bowlder bed 



Blue clay 



Clay and sand 



- E^^E^Btue shale-r^ — / - 



Vicinity of Johnson 



Yellow clay 



Clay and sand 



Blue shale 

;Sand ( Thin of ~dbi$hT) 

Decomposed 

schistose 

material 



Blue clay 



Blue clay 



Decomposed 
granitic 
material 



/ 



Brownish-blue 



White sandstone 
J31ueshale 

Mica schist 



ignite sand 



vrij-j-VJ.Mica schist 



GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN NORTHERN BIGSTONE COUNTY. 

By 0. E. Meinzer. 



BIGSTONE COUNTY. 135 

outcrop at various points in the valley below Ortonville, but nowhere 
else in the county (PL III), and there is only a small part of the county 
in which they are less than 300 feet below the surface. In general 
they are not water bearing, but in rare instances small supplies are 
derived from the disintegrated upper portion. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Ortonville. — Ortonville is at the point where Bigstone Lake dis- 
charges into Minnesota River. Granite lies at no great depth below 
the valley level, and numerous outcrops occur a short distance from 
the city. The public supply is taken from a combination dug and 
drilled well which is about 60 feet deep, ends in a bed of gravel 
immediately above the granite, and yields several hundred gallons 
per minute. The water rises within 12 feet of the surface, or 966 
feet above sea level. It is used by about 500 people and by the rail- 
way company and electric-light plant, about 65,000 gallons being 
consumed daily. Perhaps 75 per cent of the inhabitants depend 
upon private supplies. On the upland the wells are commonly dug 
>r drilled through blue bowlder clay to a depth of about 80 feet, at 
which level there is a recognized layer of water-bearing sand. Many 
springs issue from the side of the valley, and these are utilized largely 
for domestic purposes. 

Graceville. — The public supply at Graceville is derived from two 
8-inch wells which tap the Cretaceous sand stratum about 435 feet 
below the surface. The stratigraphic section is shown in Plate VII. 
The test of one of the wells was mentioned above (p. 134). The water 
is soft but rich in the alkalies. An analysis is given in the table (pp. 
137-138). Virtually all the people use this supply, and an average 
of 10,000 gallons is consumed daily. The well at the mill is 440 feet 
deep, ends in the same sand stratum as the village wells, and also 
furnishes soft water, which rises to a level 70 feet below the surface, 
and is yielded freely. 

Beardsley. — Nearly the entire water supply for the village of 
Beardsley is derived from a thick bed of outwash gravel at the sur- 
face. Underlying this deposit there is glacial drift, resting, no doubt, 
upon a series of Cretaceous shales and sandstones, beneath which 
lies the granite. The section below the drift is probably similar to 
that given for Brown Valley. The public supply, which comes from 
a well 6 feet square and 40 feet deep, is only moderately hard, and is 
used by about two-thirds of the people, approximately 6,000 gallons 
being consumed daily. 

Clinton. — The glacial drift is unusually thick in this locality. 
Water-bearing beds have been found beneath the village as follows: 

1. Gravel at 120 feet. The water is hard and strongly charged 
with iron. 



136 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

2. Blue clay with layers of fine sand between 125 and 195 feet. 
The fine sand and hard water will clog and encrust well screens in a 
short time. 

3. Gravel at 195 feet. The water is less strongly charged with 
iron than that in the 120-foot bed. It rises to about 120 feet below 
the surface. The 5-inch well of J. L. Erickson, which extends to this 
horizon, has been tested at 25 gallons per minute. 

4. Sand at 240 feet. 

5. Gravel at 330 feet. This is penetrated 14 feet by the 8-inch 
village well, which is finished with a screen and has been pumped for 
six hours continuously at the rate of SO gallons per minute. The water 
rises to a level about 120 feet below the surface and is only moder- 
ately hard, as is shown by the analysis given in the table (pp. 137-138). 

About SO per cent of the people use the public supply, the remainder 
depending for the most part upon cisterns, in which they collect 
rain water. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

The farm supplies in the county are obtained chiefly from the 
following sources: (1) Drilled wells, (2) bored and dug wells, (3) 
driven wells, and (4) springs. A large proportion of the wells at 
the present time are of the drilled type, ranging from 50 to more 
than 300 feet in depth, but commonly between 100 and 200 feet. 
Most of the drilled wells are 2 inches in diameter and are finished with 
screens that become effectually clogged in a few years, but there are 
also some 5-inch wells, which as a rule do not require screens. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Throughout the county the granitic rocks lie within several hun- 
dred feet of the surface, and since they are essentially nonwater- 
bearing and there is no water-bearing formation below them, the 
entire supply must be developed from the overlying formations at 
limited depths. The first indications that the granitic rocks have 
been reached in drilling are given by the decomposition products that 
so commonly mantle the hard rock in this region. These consist of 
clays of a brilliant red, yellow, or green, or frequently of a nearly white 
color, and may contain silvery flakes of mica or allied minerals, and 
angular grains of transparent quartz. Drillers can not fail to notice 
these striking characteristics, but they are frequently puzzled because 
they do not understand their meaning. 

There are two distinct sources of underground water to be drawn 
upon in the municipal and rural developments in the county — (1) 
the sand and graA^el beds in the glacial drift and (2) the sandstone 
strata beneath the shale ("soapstone"). The drift will nearly every- 
where contribute supplies sufficient for ordinary purposes, but unfor- 
tunately the water is very hard. The sandstone beneath the shale 



BIGSTONE COUNTY. 



137 



yields generously in some places (as Graceville) but is absent in 
others (as Ortonville), and the localities in which it will prove to be 
a satisfactory source can be determined only by actual trial, although 
the chances are best in the northern and western portions of the 
county. The water is soft, but in some places (as Brown Valley) 
contains an objectionable amount of alkalies. There are three possi- 
ble reasons for drilling through the drift and shale to the deeper beds 
of sand or sandstone — (1) to obtain a sufficiently large supply in a 
few localities where the yield from the drift is inadequate; (2) to 
obtain soft water; and (3) to obtain flows, in the valley only, for the 
water will not rise to the upland level. 



Mineral analyses of water in Bigstone County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.). 



Upper portion. 



South part of county. North part of county 



Lower portion. 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well .. .inches. . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe 2 03+Al20 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . . 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids , 



50 



50 



(a) 
28 



190 
4 



31 
2.6 



251 



108 
37 



12 
130 



127 



464 
477 



213 
320 
37 



946 
97 
12 



1,132 



671 



6 

224 

93 

43 

424' 

650 

6 

5 

1,272 



4 
366 
293 



664 

1,749 

56 



2,946 



482 
243 

156 

366' 

2,143 

15 

3,277' 



4.5 
152 
116 

282 



7.4 
146 

76 



413 

1,065 

15 



439 

856 

17 



1,838 



1,595 



420 

502 

36 

1,165' 



Depth feet. 

Diameter of well . . .inches . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe203+Al 2 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



Cretaceous. 



Vicinity of Graceville. 



440 
23" 



18 
10 

351 

527' 

284 

78 

1,044 



440 
8 
10 



6 

17' 
9 

321 

493' 

248 

65 



13 

17 
11 

337 



566 

252 

67 



562 
256 



Vicinity of 
Dumont 
(Traverse 
County). 



304 
2 

5 

.4 

4 
25 
10 



478 
871 
535 

2, 662' 



Vicinity of Brown 
Valley. 



480 



4.4 

17 



1,021 

400' 

1,167 

490 

2,946' 



Hi. 



520 



4.5 

17 



1,029 

400' 

1,161 

505 

2, 959' 



a Large. 



138 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

1. Well at Ortonville. November 6, 1907. 

2. "Hunter's well" at Ortonville. November 24, 1907. 

3. Well at Correll. September 19, 1888. 

4. Springs which furnish the public supply at Brown Valley (Traverse County). October 5, 1907. 

5. Well at Graceville. October 20, 1889. 

6. Village well at Dumont. (Traverse County). October 5, 1907. 

7. Railway well at Graceville. January 20, 1890. 

8. Well at Graceville. September 21, 1895. 

9. Village well at Clinton. October 3, 1907. 

10. Mill well at Graceville. October 5, 1907. 

11. New village well at Graceville. October 5, 1907. 

12. Well at Graceville. October 24, 1895. 

13. Well at Graceville. September 11, 1895. 

14. Well at the hotel at Dumont (Traverse County). October 5, 1907. 

15. Lower village artesian well at Brown Valley (Traverse County). October 5, 1907. 

16. Upper village artesian well at Brown Valley (Traverse County). October 5, 1907. 

Analyses 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, and Hi were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whit- 
taker, chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, and 13 were furnished by G. N 
Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 

BLUE EARTH COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Blue Earth County is that of an elevated plain, the 
continuity of which is broken at varying intervals by narrow and 
rather sharp valleys of several tributaries of Minnesota River. The 
average elevation above sea level is somewhat less than 1,000 feet, 
which is considerably less than that of the counties to the east and 
west. The highest points are near the southeastern and southwestern 
corners, whence the surface slopes gradually northward to the uplands 
that border the Minnesota and lie about 150 feet above that river. 
The surface, except for the valleys mentioned, is generally rather flat, 
but is marked by broad shallow depressions containing lakes or 
marshes, and at some points near the southern border is somew r hat 
rolling. A noticeable feature of the valleys is the series of terraces 
along the larger streams, especially along the Minnesota. The quarry 
districts north of Mankato and northwest of Minneopa Falls are 
located on such terraces, while Mankato itself is on a low alluvial 
terrace. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The alluvium of Blue Earth County is found along the present 
streams and especially in the valley of Minnesota River. The thick- 
ness varies, rock projecting through in some places, while in others 
wells fail to strike rock at considerable depths. Water occurs in 
rather large quantities, but is given up slowly, owing to the fineness 
of the deposit. 

Terrace gravels are simply alluvial deposits of greater age than 
those now forming. They represent the deposits of glacial and post- 
glacial streams flowing at levels considerably above the present river. 
Originally these older deposits extended entirely across the valley 
of the Minnesota, but later the stream cut through them, leaving only 
remnants. The gravels and sands are seldom more than 10 to 20 



BLUE EARTH COUNTY. 139 

feet thick and rest upon shelves cut into the drift or older rocks. 
Owing to their position in the valleys, they are not important as 
sources of water supply. 

The glacial drift is a gray, heterogeneous, pebbly clay, with inter- 
mingled masses of sand and gravel. Its thickness increases from 
southeast to northwest, being between 100 and 150 feet at the south- 
eastern corner and over 200 feet at the northwestern, while in the 
intervening area it is between 150 and 200 feet, except beneath the 
stream valleys, where it varies from 25 to 125 feet. A belt of deep 
drift, apparently representing an old channel either of the Minnesota 
or one of its tributaries, extends from Mankato beyond Janesville, in 
Waseca County, the thickness along this tract being 50 to 100 feet 
greater than on either side. 

The sandy and gravelly layers of the drift contain water in con- 
siderable amounts, enough being available in nearly all cases for farm 
and industrial supplies. The amount of sand, and consequently of 
available water, generally increases with the depth. 

A striking and persistent feature of the drift of this and adjacent 
counties is the yellow layer which covers all older deposits and varies 
in thickness from approximately 5 to 20 feet. There is frequently 
present at the bottom of this oxidized zone a water-bearing bed of 
some economic significance for shallow supplies. 

CRETACEOUS DEPOSITS (?). 

Some years ago clay and fine sand, probably derived from Cre- 
taceous deposits, were excavated near Mankato for the manufacture 
of fire bricks. They formed a mass of more or less broken and trans- 
ported material within the glacial drift, and the original bed whence 
they were derived has not been found. Whether there are other 
Cretaceous deposits in the county, and whether those deposits are 
Cretaceous, are questions not yet settled. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

Blue Earth County is so deeply covered with drift that no rocks 
are exposed on the uplands, but along Minnesota River and the lower 
portions of its tributaries Paleozoic formations outcrop. 

The Galena and Platteville limestones have not been definitely 
recognized, but from the fact that they are found in wells a short 
distance south of this county and also in the deep well at Waseca, 13 
miles east, it is probable that they underlie the eastern edge of the 
county. 

The St. Peter sandstone is not known to outcrop anywhere in the 
county, but is penetrated by wells at a number of points along the 



140 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

eastern border, where it is about 100 feet thick. It differs from the 
sands of the glacial drift in its uniformity, its great thickness, and 
the absence of clay partings. It affords much water for domestic 
and farm supplies. 

The rocks of the Prairie du Chien group outcrop along Minnesota 
River, forming terraces marked by numerous quarries, and occur as 
a broad subglacial belt across the center of the county. They con- 
sist essentially of buff and pink dolomite. The presence of a sandy 
zone corresponding to the New Richmond sandstone is not fully 
established. The dolomite carries some water in joints and solution 
passages, especially in its weathered upper surface at the base of the 
drift, and in a number of wells yields water rising nearly or quite to 
the surface. Upon the uplands, however, the water must be lifted 
a considerable distance to bring it to the surface. 

The Jordan sandstone lies below the alluvium of the Minnesota 
Valley north of Mankato, and below the drift along a belt stretching 
from this city to the southwestern corner of the county. It is about 
75 feet thick and generally yields supplies sufficient for all purposes. 
However, on the uplands the water must be lifted a considerable 
distance. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists chiefly of shale and mag- 
nesian limestone and appears to be about 200 feet thick. It outcrops 
in the Minnesota Valley near Judson and probably extends beneath 
the drift to the southwestern corner of the county. It carries little 
water except in occasional sandy layers and near its upper surface. 

The Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales have not been seen 
at the surface, but they underlie the drift and the Paleozoics through- 
out the county. From the record of deep wells at Mankato these 
beds appear to include about 420 feet of material, mainly sandstone. 
They are saturated with water and yield large supplies to wells at 
Mankato, the public waterworks and several large industrial plants 
depending chiefly on it for their supplies. 

Beneath the shales that underlie the Dresbach sandstone is a series 
of red sandstones, shales, and quartzites which has been penetrated 
nearly 1,300 feet in the Mankato well, but which affords only an 
insignificant amount of water compared to that yielded by the over- 
lying formations. Beneath these red sediments is Archean granite, 
which is likewise virtually not water bearing. 

WELL RECORDS. 

Below are given three well sections, two of which extend to Archean 
rocks, showing a rapid rise of the latter toward the west, with a cor- 
responding thinning of the stratified series. With such conditions 
the correlations are necessarily conjectural. 



BLUE EARTH COUNTY. 

Section of deep well on Bunker Hill, at Mankato. - 



141 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift, etc.: ' 

Clay, sand, and gravel 

Paleozoic and lower formations: 

Limestone, green shale, and sandstone [St. Lawrence] 

Sandstone and shale [Dresbach sandstone and underlying shale] 
Red sandstone and shale (entered) ." 



Feet. 
290 

205 

420 

1,289 



Feet. 
290 

495 
915 

2,204 



o Upham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, pp. 422-424. The 
correlations are not by Mr. Upham. 

Section of well at Minneopa Falls. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift, etc.: 

Soil, sand, gravel, and weathered limestone 

Paleozoic and lower formations: 

Blue shale 

AVhite sandstone ( J ordan?) 

"Red claylike stone " 

''Blue slate, white when dry' 

Pink sand 

AVhite sand (Dresbach?) 

Red quartzite, conglomerate, etc 

Dark-gray quartzose sandstone or conglomerate, with some red shale 

Crystalline rocks (Archean) 



Feet. 
100 

10 
35 
20 

100 
10 

100 

200 
60 

365 



Feet. 
100 

110 
145 
165 
265 
275 
375 
575 
635 
1,000 



Section of village well at Lake Crystal. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift 

Paleozoic and lower formations: 

Sandstone (lower part of Jordan ?) 

Limestone and shale (St. Lawrence) 

Limestone, shale, and white sandstone (Dresbach sandstone and underlying shale).. 

Red clastic series 

Granite (entered) 



Feet. 
145 

40 

140 

324 

50 

20 



Feet. 
145 

185 
325 
649 
699 
719 



FLOWING WELLS. 

In the lower areas of the county there are many flowing wells, some 
of which are supplied from Paleozoic formations, but the majority of 
which end in the drift at depths of 50 to 100 feet. A chain of these 
wells extends along Blue Earth River from the Faribault County 
border to its confluence with the Minnesota, and others are located 
along Watonwan, Maple, Little Cobb, and Lesueur rivers, but none 
are obtained on the upland prairie. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Mankato. — Within the city of Mankato is to be found a w T ide range 
of well conditions. Some supplies are obtained from the drift, others 
from the successive sandstones and limestones, and many from the 
alluvium lying along the flood plain of Minnesota River. A large 



142 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

number of artesian wells have been drilled. For a time all of them 
yielded generously, but in recent years they have shown signs of 
decrease in flow, this tendency being greatest in the wells that furnish 
water with high iron content. When hard deposits, such as iron 
crusts, travertine layers, etc., form in the well, shooting with dyna- 
mite will frequently give relief. The observations made upon the 
data collected at Mankato seem to indicate that more attention can 
be given with profit to the shallower Paleozoic sources. While the 
water from these has a lower head, it seems to be somewhat softer 
than that in the deeper beds. 

The public supply is obtained from four flowing wells 650 feet deep. 
About two-thirds of the population use this water, and an average 
daily consumption of 783,000 gallons is reported. 

Lake Crystal. — The public supply at Lake Crystal is derived from 
a well 719 feet in depth, the log of which is given on page 141 . Shal- 
low wells furnish the supply for a large part of the population, 
although there are several deeper wells also ending in glacial drift. 

Mapleton. — The public supply of Mapleton village, which is used 
by virtually all of the people, is drawn from a 4-inch well 224 feet 
deep, in which the water rises to about 30 feet below the surface. 
The deeper wells enter a sandstone which is probably the St. Peter. 
Patches of limestone have been found overlying the sandstone, indi- 
cating that the Galena or the Platteville limestone is present in some 
localities but not in others. 

Good Thunder. — The public supply at Good Thunder is taken from 
a well that is 374 feet deep and ends in sandstone. Most of the people 
use private wells. 

Amboy. — In Amboy village the public supply is derived from a 
6-inch well that extends to a depth of 486 feet and taps a standstone 
which is probably the Jordan. Fully two-thirds of the people use 
water from private wells. 

Vernon Center. — The waterworks are supplied from a well 147 feet 
deep. The public water is not extensively used. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

For ordinary purposes the glacial drift usually affords adequate 
supplies, but, except possibly in the northwestern portion of the 
county, the deep-lying sandstones will yield still more generously. 
The three well sections given above show the stratigraphic succession. 
Although flows are commonly obtained in the valle3 T s from both the 
drift and the sandstones, they can not be secured on the upland 
prairie from either source. 



BROWN COUNTY. 



143 



Mineral analyses of water in Blue Earth County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



St. Peter 
sand- 
stone. 



Jordan 
sand- 
stone. 



Dresbach sandstone and 
underlying shales. 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



225 
17 

152 
46 
78 

464 

310 
4 

855 



22 

170 

58 

85 

455 

470 

14 

1,037 



650 

9 

111 

38 

64 

461 

174 

8 

635 



650 

6 

79 

35 

44 

417 

85 

4.8 

459 



650? 

65 
126 

52 

25 
380 
233 

20 
654 



1. Village well at Mapleton. November 15, 1906. 

2. Village well at Amboy. November 14, 1906. 

3. Well at the Hubbard Mills, No. 1, in Mankato, 1889. 

4. City wells at Mankato. 

5. Well at the flouring mill in Mankato. 

Analyses 1 and 2 were made for the United States Geological Survey by Prof. W. S. Hendrixson. Analy- 
sis 4 was furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company. Analysis 
5 was made by the Kennicott Company. 

BROWN COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Brown County is a nearly level plain, most of which 
lies between 1,000 and 1,100 feet above sea level. The southwestern 
corner, however, is higher and has a more irregular topography, 
probably being part of the moraine that can be traced northwestward 
across Yellow Medicine County and in the opposite direction through 
Martin County into Iowa. a The northeastern boundary is formed by 
Minnesota River, which occupies a valley 150 to 200 feet deep. Big 
Cottonwood and Little Cottonwood rivers flow eastward across the 
county through shallow trenches until they approach the Minnesota, 
where their grade increases and their valleys are deep and gorgelike. 
In other words, these valleys are not in topographic adjustment with 
that of the Minnesota. The latter was excavated rapidly at the close 
of the last glacial epoch by the abundant waters issuing from the 
melting ice, while the former are still flowing on the surface of the 
upland throughout the greater part of their course. The wide inter- 
stream areas have only a very imperfect and sluggish drainage, and 
contain numerous swamps, ponds, and lakes. Near the Minnesota 
Valley the upland is dissected by many deep valleys, which do not, 
however, exceed a few miles in length. 



a Upham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 581, 



144 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description.— The surface deposits include recent alluvium and 
glacial drift. The former is found only in the valleys of Minnesota 
River and its tributaries, and is not important; the latter is present 
everywhere except in small tracts in the valleys of Minnesota and 
Cottonwood rivers, and in a few other localities where underlying 
formations are exposed. The entire drift mantle has frequently been 
pierced in drilling wells. Throughout most of the county it is between 
100 and 200 feet thick, but over a restricted section in the eastern 
part it has a somewhat greater thickness, while in the southwestern 
corner, where the quartzite occurs, and in the valleys of Minnesota 
and Cottonwood rivers, where postglacial erosion has taken place, it 
is generally thinner. The drift consists of unassorted bowlder clay 
with interbedded deposits of sand and gravel, which are roughly 
assorted and stratified and comprise the pervious, water-bearing 
members. Porous, gravelly beds also frequently lie at the base of the 
drift, and in the southeastern part of the county these attain a 
remarkable thickness, as is shown by the section of the mill well at 
Hanska given in Plate XVI. 

Yield, head, and quality of the water. — The sand and gravel which 
occurs in the drift or at its base usually yields generous supplies of 
water. In most of the county the water rises within 50 feet of the 
surface, but in the deeper wells on the upland prairie near Minnesota 
River it frequently remains at depths of 100 to 200 feet. Especially is 
this true in the vicinity of New Ulm. In the valley of Cottonwood River 
at Springfield there is a small area of flowing wells that are about 30 
feet deep and end in a bed of sand beneath a layer of clay. These 
wells have a head of only a few feet and flow several gallons per minute 
each. Along the Minnesota and its tributaries there are many springs, 
one of the largest of which is the "Big Spring," in the Golden Gate 
vicinity. The water derived from the drift has invariably been found 
to be hard but otherwise good. (See the analyses in the accompany- 
ing table, p. 148.) 

CRETACEOUS DEPOSITS. 

Description. — Between the drift and the older indurated forma- 
tions there is a series of beds consisting of layers of clay, shale, marl, 
sand, sandstone, lignite, etc. The sandstone is generally white, 
while the clays and shales have various colors but are predominantly 
red. The fossil leaves, the oxidized condition of the clay, the marked 
cross-bedding, the lack of continuity of the strata, and the presence 
of lignite, all indicate that these are either nonmarine or littoral 
deposits. The fossil leaves determined by Leo Lesquereux and 
James Hall seem to correlate them with the Dakota sandstone of the 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE VIII 



Sleepy Eye 



Feet above 
sea level 



Cottonwood 
River 



Little Cottonwood 
River 



Sigel Twp. 



Cottonwood Twp. 



Milford Twp. 



New Ulm 



900 o — 



fsSE?E£oz 



Yellow clay" 



Blue clay 



Gravel 



Granite 



Clay 

Gravel 

Clay ( Mb pebbles ) 



Gravel 

Clay \(No pebbles) 



Pebbly day 



Blue clay 



-:■<■■ 



Red and white clay 
Sandstone 



Yellow clay 



Blue clay 



Red^day 

Red and white clay 

Sandstone V 
Shale 



Gravel. 

White clay (Wb pMles) 
(Corltains one thin 
stratum of brownish 
red clay) 



White clay 
Turning darker) 



Red granite 



Yellow clay 
Blue clay 



Sand 



Blue clay 



Red day 



White clay 
{With $treak* of 
red and green clay) - 



Sandstone 



Yellow day 



Blue clay — \~ 



Sand -" 



Red clay 
Sandstone 



Clay, sand, 
and gravel 

Sand" 



Red clay 



Green clay 
Sandstone 



Granite 



GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN BROWN COUNTY. 
By O E. Meinzer. 



Sleepy Eye. — Generalized section from field notes of M. L. Fuller. 

Cottonwood lliver. — Well 3 miles southeast of Sleepy Eye, on bank of Cotton- 
wood River. Reported by N. H. Winchell in Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. 
Hist. Survey Minnesota, i885, p. 15, on authority of 0. M. Phelps, who drilled the 
well. 

Little Cottonwood River.— Well on farm of George Helget, NE, ] see. 36, T. 109 N., 
R. 32 W. 

Si^el Township.— Well on farm of ,1. Zimmerman, SE. | sec 1!), T. 109 N., R. 31 W 



Cottonwood Township. — Well on fa 
II. 30 W.; approximate. 



i rge Haas, SE, I sec. 6, T. 109 N., 



Milford Township.— Well on farm of .1. M. Haubrick, SW. \ sec 21. T. 110 N , 
R. 31 W. This section and the three preceding are Riven on the authority of Fred. 
Ilamann, driller, New Ulm. 

New Ulm. — City wells on a terrace about i;> feci above the river. Authority, 
Charles Stoll and others. 

The altitudes for all except the lirst and last sections an I) approximately known. 



BROWN COUNTY. 145 

Upper Cretaceous. They are exposed in the Minnesota Valley at 
New Ulm and for several miles below that city, and .also at various 
points in the valley of Cottonwood River. They have been pene- 
trated in numerous wells south of the Cottonwood and in the vicinity 
of New Ulm (PL VIII). From the data at hand it may be said that 
the Cretaceous deposits range up to at least 200 feet in thickness, 
and that they are present throughout most of the southern section 
of the county except in the southwestern corner, where the quartzite 
is near the surface. At Sleepy Eye and in much of the northern 
part they appear to be absent, but in this county they may so far 
resemble the drift that it is difficult to differentiate them in well 
sections. The red, green, and white clays or shales, the white sand- 
stones, and the layers of lignite are at once recognized as Cretaceous, 
but it is probable that the blue and yellow cl&ys and the sand and 
gravel which are referred to the drift are in fact partly Cretaceous. 
If this is true, the thickness of the drift is not everywhere so great as 
is supposed and a thin layer of Cretaceous material may exist beneath 
the drift in localities where it has not been recognized as such. 

Yield of water. — Where Cretaceous sandstones are found they will 
produce large quantities of water. The three city wells at New Ulm 
are together pumped at the rate of 350 gallons per minute, and all 
the Cretaceous farm wells that were reported yield ample supplies. 

Head of the water. — The water from the sandstones has about the 
same head as that from the drift. As far as is known, there is no 
place in the county where they will produce flowing wells. At New 
Ulm, on the first terrace, the water rises to 75 feet below the surface, 
which is about 30 feet below the level of the river, or 765 feet above 
the sea. Near the river it will therefore stand about 200 feet below 
the level of the upland prairie. According to report, when the first 
well was sunk into the Cretaceous sandstone at New Ulm, nearly 
twenty years ago, the water rose 35 feet higher than it does at present. 

Quality of the water. — Although the sandstone water is not soft, it 
is generally considered less hard than that from the drift, and it 
stands in marked contrast to the extremely hard water found in 
Watonwan County in the formations that lie below the. drift and are 
supposed to be Cretaceous. It contains considerable quantities of 
sodium chloride, as is shown by analyses 5 and 6 in the accompany- 
ing table (p. 148). 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

It is probable that remnants of the white Dresbach sandstone and 
underlying shale exist in the southeastern corner of the county, and 
they may have been penetrated in the mill well at Hanska. (See 

a U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey Terr., vol. 6, pp. 6, 68, 76, 90, 93. Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist, 
Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, pp. 98, 574, 576. 

60920°— wsp 256—11 10 



146 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

PL XVI and also the reports on Blue Earth and Watonwan coun- 
ties.) Wherever these formations are present they yield copiously. 

SIOUX QUARTZ ITE. 

Bodies of Sioux quartzite are known in several localities in the 
southwestern corner of this county, and in Nicollet County in the 
vicinity of New Ulm. The former, which is a part of the large quartz- 
ite area to the southwest, has several outcrops; the latter, which 
belongs to the smaller Courtland area, comes to the surface only in 
Nicollet County, opposite New Ulm. It is not known whether this 
rock is continuous between the two areas. It may exist at consid- 
erable depths in the south-central and southeastern parts of the 
county, but at Sleepy Eye and throughout the northern portion 
generally it is known to be absent. It contains only small quantities 
of water, of no economic value except in the southwestern corner, 
where no other supply is available. 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 

Granitic rocks are exposed at various points in the Minnesota 
Valley on both sides of the river and are encountered at Sleepy Eye 
at a depth of about 200 feet (PI. III). In much of the northern 
part of the county the granitic surface probably lies directly under 
the drift, but southward from Sleepy Eye and New Ulm it slopes 
down and disappears below the Cretaceous, Paleozoic, and Algon- 
kian sediments. These rocks, which extend to an indefinite depth, 
will yield little or no water. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

New Ulm. — The city of New Ulm is situated upon several terraces 
on the west side of Minnesota River. The Cretaceous formations 
are exposed in the city, but on the undissected upland are covered 
by a thick mantle of glacial drift. At the pumping station of the 
city waterworks granite occurs at a depth of about 200 feet, but on 
the east side of the river both the quartzite and the granite come to 
the surface. The main water-bearing bed is a 20-foot stratum of 
sandstone at the base of the Cretaceous, about 150 feet below the 
river level. The public supply is taken from three wells about 195 
feet deep, which tap this sandstone. The head and yield of these 
wells have already been given (p. 145). The water, an analysis of 
which will be found in the accompanying table (p. 14S), is used by 
about 3,400 people, and on an average about SO, 000 gallons is con- 
sumed daily. Perhaps 40 per cent of the inhabitants depend upon 
private wells, which can be classified into two groups ; — (1) shallow- 
dug wells ending in sand and gravel and generally supplying con- 
siderable water, and (2) drilled wells extending to the sandstone and 
yielding liberally. The Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company 



BROWN COUNTY. 147 

and several of the breweries are supplied from wells belonging to 
the second group. An analysis of the water from the railway well 
is given in the table (p. 148). 

Sleepy Eye. — The stratigraphic section for this locality is shown in 
Plate VIII. The public supply is obtained from two wells, one of 
which is 4| inches in diameter and 180 feet deep and has been tested 
at 40 gallons per minute, and the other 4 inches in diameter and 
222 feet deep and has been tested at 100 gallons per minute. The 
water is reported to rise to a level between 45 and 60 feet below the 
surface, or between 975 and 990 feet above the sea. It is used b} r 
about 400 people, approximately 29,000 gallons being consumed 
daily. The private wells for domestic supplies are generally between 
15 and 75 feet in depth, but a few domestic wells and the wells which 
supply the Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company, the Sleepy 
Eye flouring mill, the electric-light plant, and several other indus- 
trial concerns extend to the 200-foot bed. The maximum test re- 
ported for any well entering this bed is 185 gallons a minute. The 
water is hard, as is shown by the analyses in the table. 

Springfield. — The village of Springfield lies on the banks of Cotton- 
wood River. The business portion is in the valley, while most of the 
dwellings are on the terraces and the upland. On the first terrace, 
which is only 5 or 10 feet above the flood plain, flows are obtained 
from a layer of sand about 30 feet below the surface. The uplands 
are underlain by glacial drift, but Cretaceous outcrops are found in 
the valley near the village. The people are at present dependent on 
private supplies. There are four types of wells — dug, driven, bored, 
and drilled. The dug wells are generally between 10 and 20 feet 
deep; the driven, between 10 and 35 feet; the bored, between 30 and 
100 feet; and the drilled, between 100 and 150 feet. The dug and 
driven wells are chiefly in the valley and on the first terrace, where 
an abundance of water can be obtained from the alluvial deposits at 
shallow depths, while the drilled wells are on the upland. For boiler 
purposes water from the river is chiefly used. The public water- 
works were formerly supplied from two wells, 4 inches in diameter 
and 36 feet in depth, but are now reported to be supplied from springs. 
The water is pumped into an elevated tank and thence distributed 
through the mains by gravity pressure to about twenty-five taps. 
The average daily consumption is estimated at 30,000 gallons. 

Comfrey. — The village of Comfrey has a system of public water- 
works supplied from a well which is 8 inches in diameter and 140 feet 
deep, but the people generally use water from private wells. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

There are two principal types of farm wells in the county — (1) 
bored and dug wells and (2) drilled and driven wells. In the west- 
ern part of the county the former predominate, while in the eastern 
the latter are more numerous; but everywhere the drilled wells are 
gradually supplanting the dug and bored ones. Some of the latter 



148 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



stop in the surficial zone of yellow clay, but many extent! into the 
blue bowlder clay and penetrate seams of sand and gravel at depths 
of 50 to 100 feet. The drilled wells extend to the deeper, gravelly 
portions of the drift, or, less frequently, enter the Cretaceous strata. 
They range from about 100 to 350 feet in depth, but seldom exceed 
225 feet. The 2-inch wells that end in sand must be provided with 
screens, but screens are not generally necessary in wells of larger 
diameter, nor in wells that penetrate sandstone, even though their 
diameter is small. As elsewhere in southwestern Minnesota, the 
screens cause considerable annoyance by becoming incrusted with 
mineral substances deposited by the water. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Except in the southeastern part of the county, either the quartzite 
or the granite lies relatively near the surface. The quartzite con- 
tains small stores of water, but should not be penetrated except in 
the southwestern corner, where no other supplies can be obtained. 
The granite is not water bearing, and drilling should therefore not 
be continued when it is encountered. The beds of gravel, sand, and 
sandstone, in the formations above the quartzite or granite, gener- 
ally contain supplies sufficient for all ordinary purposes. No flows 
are to be expected except in small and unimportant areas, such as 
the one at Springfield. The water is generally hard, but averages 
somewhat softer in the sandstone than in the sand and gravel nearer 
the surface. 

Mineral analyses of water in Brown County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Springs. 



Surface deposits 
(glacial drift, etc.). 



Cretaceous. 



Depth feet. 

Diameter of well inches . 

Silica (SiOg) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (.Fe^Os+Alji > :i ) 

Calcium ( Ca) 

Magnesium ( Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) 

Carbonate radicle (COg) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SOj) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



ais 



210 
4 



28 
2.3 

149 



28 
2.1 
223 
87 

82 



472 
20 
34 



743 

123 

5 



565 

5S9 

10 



473 



793 



150 
60 
47 



600 

208 

7 



195 

and S 



288 

223 
131 



70S 789 



10 

71 
30 
144 



270 
2.57 
104 



1. Springs at New Ulm. February 5, 1S90. 

2. AVell at the roller mill in Sleepy Eve. July 1. 1889. 

3. "City well" at Sleepy Eye. March 17, 1900. 

4. Well at Sleepy Eve. July, 1S90. 

5. City wells at New Ulm. August 16, 1007. 
0. Depot well at New Ulm. April 30, 1892. 

Analysis 5 was made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, chemist Minnesota 
state board of health; the others were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicaeo and Northwestern 
Railway Company. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 149 

CARVER COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

In the northeastern part of Carver County there is an area of rough 
topography, whence the surface stretches off toward the southwest 
into a broad level area. On the southeast the county is bounded by 
the deep, wide Minnesota Valley, near which the upland is consider- 
ably dissected. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The glacial drift is in general between 200 and 300 feet thick and 
yields satisfactory supplies of water from its gravelly beds. 

Upon the uplands stretching out from the morainic region of Hen- 
nepin County and the northeastern part of Carver County lies a 
broad expanse of outwash gravels, sands, and clays, reaching quite 
across the county toward the south and west. 

Extensive deposits of clays, which appear at Chaska and Carver, 
indicate an interesting lake stage in the history of Minnesota River 
near the close of glacial times. 

An unusual development of the terrace gravels is seen along the 
course of the Minnesota where it forms the boundary of the county. 
This gravel zone locally narrows to a few hundred feet, but is gener- 
ally 2 miles or more. Water is found in it in considerable quantities, 
except near the edges of the terraces. Recently deposited alluvium 
occurs in the Minnesota Valley and along several of the smaller 
streams, but is not important. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

Although the Cretaceous has never been found in this county it is 
possible that it will be discovered in future well drillings. The upper- 
most Palezoic formation present is probably the Oneota dolomite, 
which has been found in the neighborhood of Lake Minnesota and at 
Eden Prairie, in Hennepin County, and also in adjacent parts of 
Scott County. The first formation yet disclosed in the well drillings 
recorded from Carver County is the Jordan sandstone, which is 
present in the eastern part and has a thickness, where not eroded, of 
about 115 feet. It carries an abundance of water and is a valuable 
source of supply. 

The St. Lawrence formation, although usually containing much 
shale, in this county consists to a considerable extent of a yellow to 
red magnesian limestone. According to well records available, it is 
as much as 185 feet thick. It is not seen at the surface within this 
county, but St. Lawrence Township, in Scott County, on the oppo- 
site side of Minnesota River, is the type locality of the formation. 

a Second Ann. Rept. Geo!, and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, 1873, p. 150. 



150 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Though it is saturated with water, it is so compact that it is not 
important as a water-bearing formation. 

The Dresbach sandstone and underlying shale were penetrated in 
the deep well at Chaska, where the drill apparently entered them a 
distance of 215 feet and reached an abundant supply of water under 
artesian pressure. It is probable that in the western part of the 
county the St. Lawrence and Jordan formations are both absent and 
that the Dresbach sandstone lies immediately below the drift. 

The section of the deep well at Glencoe to the west (given in the 
report on McLeod County) and the sections of wells to the north and 
south make it reasonably certain that water-bearing sandstones are 
present throughout this county. 

The following two well sections also give valuable information on 
this important point: 

Section of city tvell at Chaska, on the flood plain of Minnesota River. 
[Authority, the mayor of Chaska.] 



Brick clay 

"Hardpan" 

White sandstone [Jordan?] 

Shale [St. Lawrence?] 

White and red sandstone.. 
Shale 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Feet. 
150 
50 
80 
185 
200 
15 



Feet. 
150 
200 
280 
465 
665 



Section of railway well at Hamburg. 
[Authority, chemist Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Surface soil 

Yellow clay 

Blue clay 

"Hardpan" 

Soft yellow clay 

"Hardpan"../ 

Water-bearing sand 
White sandstone.. . 



Feet. 



35 



Feet. 

1 

8 

75 

119 

125 

203 

209 

244 



HEAD OF THE WATER. 

On the uplands the water in the surficial sand and gravel stands very 
near the surface, while that from the deeper horizons, although under 
considerable pressure, remains some distance below the surface. In 
the Minnesota Valley, along the southeastern border of the county, 
however, the water from the deeper formations rises above the sur- 
face, good flowing wells being obtained at Chaska and Carver. In 
the abandoned railway well at Hamburg the water stood 90 feet 
below the surface, or about 910 feet above sea level; in the city well 
at Chaska it is reported to rise 30 feet above the surface, or about 780 
feet above sea level. 



CHIPPEWA COUNTY. 



151 



TABLE OF ANALYSES. 

In the following table, analysis 3 was furnished by the chemist of 
the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad; the others by G. N. Prentiss, 
chemist, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company: 

Mineral analyses of water in Carver County. 

[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Glacial drift. 



Depth feet 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) • 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



100 

150 

53 

20 
482 
228 

2.7 
695 



233 

145 

50 

51 

625 

152 

1.9 
712 



Oneota(?) 
dolomite. 



2 

416 

22 

3 



Jordan sandstone. 



491 
69 
32 
9.7 
387 
6.6 
2.1 
310 



400 

145 

52 

44 

600 

169 

2.8 
707 



a Spring. 

1. Well at Chanhassen. November 22, 1897. 

2. Well at Cologne. November 15, 1894. 

3. Spring at Carver, owned by the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad Company. 1892. 

4. Well at Chanhassen. August 14, 1902. 

5. Well at Cologne. August 4, 1902. 

CHIPPEWA COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

Chippewa is a typical prairie county, with very imperfect drainage 
and numerous lakes and ponds. Minnesota River, which here occu- 
pies a valley 1 to 2 miles wide and 100 to 150 feet deep, forms the 
southwestern boundary. Its principal affluents in this county are 
Chippewa River and Hawk Creek, two streams which have cut rather 
deep trenches into the upland but have developed only short tribu- 
taries and hence have left the extensive interstream areas quite 
unaffected by erosion. 

There are several interesting deserted river channels associated 
with the Minnesota Valley. One of these starts from the bend of 
Pomme de Terre River, east of Appleton, and extends southeastward 
to the vicinity of Watson, where it joins the valley of Chippew T a River, 
which has an unusual wddth from this point to where it opens into 
the Minnesota Valley at Montevideo. This deserted channel is also 
^connected with the Minnesota Valley by a channel north of Milan and 
another more prominent one midway between Milan and Watson." 

a Upham, Warren, Final Kept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, p. 208. 



152 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift forms a continuous cover for the 
entire county except in a number of small areas near Minnesota River 
where the granite has been exposed by stream erosion. Its average 
thickness is 200 feet or somewhat less. On the upland bordering the 
Minnesota Valley it is about 150 feet, but it increases gradually 
toward the northeast. However, on account of irregularities in the 
surface upon which the drift rests, the thickness varies considerably 
within short distances. 

Yield of water. — The glacial drift is the only source of water that 
can be relied on. Where it is thick enough it usually includes one or 
more sand and gravel seams saturated with water and capable of pro- 
viding supplies adequate for ordinary purposes; but where it is thin 
it is likely to be devoid of any satisfactory water-bearing bed, as at 
Montevideo and in other localities. 

Head of the water. — The water from the drift nearly everywhere 
rises close to the surface. Flowing wells with slight pressure are 
found in the valley of Chippewa River north of Watson, and one or 
two are reported in the village of Milan. It is probable that they can 
be secured in other low tracts, but there is no important flowing area. 

Quality of the water. — The reports on Swift, Kandiyohi, and Renville 
counties show that in this region the water from the upper portion 
of the drift includes large quantities of calcium and sulphates, while 
that from the lower portion generally contains less calcium and rela- 
tively small quantities of sulphates. The shallow water is therefore 
harder than that from deeper sources and is poorer for boiler purposes.' 
What is true in the adjoining counties is probably also true in this 
county, although no specific data were obtained. 

CRETACEOUS DEPOSITS. 

The Cretaceous deposits consist of soft, blue shale (" soapstone ") 
and thin strata of sand. They have been encountered in several 
wells in this county and are found in all the counties bordering on 
Chippewa. Their total thickness is nowhere great, perhaps rarely 
100 feet, while in the vicinity of Montevideo and Granite Falls, 
and in other localities, they are known to be absent. When the 
Cretaceous shale is reached in drilling there is little probability of 
obtaining water, but in rare instances a satisfactory water-bearing 
bed of sand is discovered below the shale. The typical Cretaceous 
water is soft, but contains large quantities of alkali and of sulphates 
and chlorine. (See the reports on Bigstone, Lac qui Parle, and Yellow 
Medicine counties.) There is probably no Cretaceous water in this 
county that has not been mixed with water from the drift. 



CHIPPEWA COUNTY. 153 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 

The granitic rocks are exposed in a number of places near Min- 
nesota River (Pi. Ill) and underlie this entire county at depths 
which at few if any points exceed 500 feet. On the uplands near 
Granite Falls granite was struck at a depth of about 200 feet; in the 
vicinity of Montevideo, at about 130 feet; and in the village of Milan, 
at about 200 feet. In the northeast it is more deeply buried, but 
from the available data it appears improbable that it lies very far 
below the surface anywhere within this county. 

As in other sections of southwestern Minnesota, the upper part of 
the granite is generally much decomposed, and in many places is 
overlain by white clay. At the stock yards in Montevideo this clay 
is reported to have been penetrated to a depth of 70 feet. It is with- 
out doubt a product of the granitic rock, but its thickness in some 
localities, its freedom from grit in many places, and the fact that it 
includes some interbedded layers of sand, all indicate that in part it 
has been transported and redeposited by water; in other words, it is 
a sedimentary deposit rather than a granitic residuum. If, as is prob- 
able, the sedimentation took place when the Cretaceous seas invaded 
the region, the white clay is in part a sort of basal Cretaceous forma- 
tion. When the white clay or ordinary granitic residuum is encoun- 
tered there is little probability of securing water, though successful 
wells are occasionally finished in these materials. After the solid 
granite has been entered there is virtually no hope of getting water. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Montevideo. — The granite lies near the surface and in many places 
is covered by a layer of white clay. The glacial drift is thin, but is 
virtually the only water-bearing formation, there being no deep or 
strong water zone. No soft water is available, but the analyses given 
in the table show a considerable variation in hardness. 

The public supply is secured from springs about 1 mile north of the 
village, whence the water is conducted by gravity to the pumping 
station. In 1907 the springs yielded about half a million gallons per 
day, only about one-fifth of which was utilized. In view of the 
meager ground-water resources of the village, these springs must be 
considered invaluable. About two-thirds of the people use water 
from private wells, which are either bored or dug and end in sand or 
yellow clay at depths of about 20 to 30 feet. The yield of these wells 
is small and is easily affected by drought. 

Milan— In the village of Milan the granitic rocks are about 200 feet 
below the surface, and are overlain by a thin bed of shale. The water 
supply is derived from the glacial drift, chiefly from wells ranging 
between 20 and 60 feet in depth. The public supply, which is not yet 



154 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



extensively used, comes from a well 9 feet in diameter and 25 feet 
in depth. 

Maynard. — All the people in this settlement use water from private 
wells, the public waterworks being maintained almost exclusively for 
fire protection. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

There are two principal types of farm wells, bored and drilled. 
The former, which are shallow and do not always yield adequate sup- 
plies in dry years, are gradually being replaced by drilled wells. The 
latter do not average much over 100 feet in depth. The 2-inch wells 
require screens, but the wells of larger diameter are finished success- 
fully with open ends. Since the screens are liable to become clogged 
in the course of a few years, their use should be avoided wherever 
possible, and for this reason 6-inch wells are recommended for farm 
purposes. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

In all sections of the county the granitic rocks lie within a few 
hundred feet of the surface. Since granite will not yield water and 
there is no water-bearing formation below it, deep drilling should not 
be undertaken. In rare instances small supplies are found after the 
shale ("soapstone"), the white clay, or the ordinary decomposed 
granite are reached, but the glacial drift is the only reliable source of 
water. 

Analyses of water from the upper and lower portions of the drift at 
Benson, Willmar, Grove City, Renville, Olivia, Bird Island, Hector, 
and other places east of Chippewa County show that the water from 
the lower portion has much less permanent hardness than that from 
the upper. Since the same is probably true in the parts of Chippewa 
County where the drift has considerable thickness, drilling to the 
deeper drift horizons is recommended. Near the Minnesota Valley, 
where the drift is relatively thin, the beds containing the softer water 
are likely to be absent. 

Mineral analyses of water in Chippeiva County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth fee t . 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SOj) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



1. 


0. 


3. 




CO 
100 


75 
201 


14(i 


43 


32 


67 


37 


42 


195 


439 


4C4 


651 


241 


5 


99 


7 


8 


399 


089 


461 


1,281 



91 
32 
19 

190 
663 



19 

588 



1. Springs north of Montevideo, used for public supply. November 23. 1907. 

2. "Casgreve's well" at Montevideo. November 23, 1907. 

3. "Clark's well" at Montevideo. November 23, 1907. 

4. Railway well at Milan. December 2, 1897. 

The above analyses were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway 
Company. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 155 

COTTONWOOD COUNTY. 
By O. E. Meinzek. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The prevailing topography of Cottonwood County is that of a 
nearly level and poorly drained prairie. But this topograph}' is 
modified in the north by a ridge of quartzite and in the south and 
west by a morainic belt. 

The eastern portion of the quartzite ridge rises from 1,300 to 1,500 
feet above sea level and stands prominently above the surrounding 
country, especially above the region to the north. Westward it 
becomes wider but less conspicuous as a plrysiographic feature. Its 
trend is shown in Plate IV. Mound Creek, Little Cottonwood 
River, and one of the branches of Watonwan River all flow across 
this ridge and have cut little canyons into it. 

The morainic belt forks at Windom, one arm extending to the north, 
and the other to the northwest in the direction of Westbrook and 
Currie. The Blue Mounds constitute the most prominent portion 
of the moraine, and reach an altitude of about 1,500 feet above the 
sea. a 

Cottonwood County is drained northward into Cottonwood River, 
eastward into the Watonwan, and southward into the Des Moines. 
The last-named stream flows through the southwestern part, follow- 
ing a peculiar course. It enters from Murra}" County, running 
southeastward apparently along the trend of an ancient valley in 
which Lake Shetek and Heron Lake now lie. Where it reaches the 
Jackson County line it turns abruptly and flows northeastward for 
8 or 9 miles, where it meets a valley from the north and again turns 
toward the southeast. It occupies a valley that has been cut con- 
siderably below the upland surface. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift forms a nearly continuous cover 
for the older formations, being interrupted only in the small areas 
where the Sioux quartzite comes to the surface. A general con- 
ception of its thickness can be acquired from Plate II and from the 
ensuing discussion of the Cretaceous and Algonkian. Over an 
extended region in the central, east-central, and northeastern parts 
of the county it has an average thickness of less than 100 feet, and 
in many localities of less than 50 feet; but in the southern, western, 
and extreme northern parts its thickness ranges from 200 to more 
than 300 feet. In drilling the city well at Windom the drift was 
found to be 250 feet deep, and in a number of other wells in this 

aUpham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 491 et seq. 



156 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

vicinity between 250 and 300 feet. Near the western margin of the 
county the entire drift sheet has seldom been penetrated. 

Yield of water. — Where the drift is thick it usually includes layers 
of sand or gravel that afford sufficient water for farm purposes and 
also for ordinary industrial and public supplies; but in the central 
and eastern parts, where it is thin, it is frequently found to be devoid 
of any bed that will yield much water. The alluvium of the Des- 
Moines Valley yields abundantly from very shallow depths. 

Head of the water. — Throughout the county the water from the drift 
is under considerable artesian pressure, commonly rising within 50 
feet and frequently within 25 feet of the top of the well. Although 
there is no extensive area in which flows can be obtained, there are 
several small ones, most of which are related to the quartzite ridge. 
The latter stands higher than the surrounding country, and the drift 
laps up over it. A part of the rain that falls on this elevated ground 
is transmitted, either directly or through the pervious portions of 
the rock, to the sand and gravel seams of the drift. Wherever there 
is an opportunit}^ the water leaks out and flows to a lower level, 
thus producing many springs along the margins of the ridge. But 
where the impervious bowlder clay extends up over the rock the 
water is confined, and hence accumulates head and gives rise to 
conditions requisite for obtaining flowing wells. These relations 
are shown in a diagrammatic way in figure 4. 

In the valley of Des Moines River all along its course the water 
from shallow horizons is raised approximately to the surface, and 
flowing wells could probably be secured in some localities. 

Quality of the water. — The water from the glacial drift is all hard. 
In the accompanying table of analyses (p. 162), Nos. 3, 4, and 5 repre- 
sent water from moderate depths in the drift, and it will be seen 
that all three of these samples have an extremely high content of 
calcium and of the sulphate radicle for which reason they have a 
very great permanent hardness and will produce much hard scale 
in boilers. In the same table Nos. 1 and 2 represent water from 
deposits of sand and gravel near the surface, which, although also 
hard, has a much smaller content of scale-forming minerals. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — Shales and sandstones have been encountered in 
several wells in the vicinities of Windom and Westbrook and in many 
wells immediately north of this county. The section of the city 
well at Windom shown in Plate IX is typical for that region. The 
well at the flouring mill at Westbrook, 568 feet deep, and the one 
drilled for the railway company in the same village, 642 feet deep, 
are both reported to pass through a certain amount of shale and 
to end in sandstone. It is evident from these data that a wedge 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE IX 




GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN SOUTHERN COTTONWOOD AND NORTHERN JACKSON COUNTIES. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 



Heron Lake. — Well drilled in 1905 in village of Heron Lake for 
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway Company. 
Authority, G. J. Savidge, driller, Wayne, Nebr. 

Near Heron Lake. — Well on farm of Mr. Runser, 1J miles north- 
east of Heron Lake. Authority, E. W. Anderson, driller, Heron 
Lake. 

Wilder. — Well 1 mile northwest of Wilder, on farm of C. B. 
Cheadle. 



South of Windom. — Well 5 miles south of Windom, on farm of 
Arthur Johnson. This section and the one preceding are given 
on the authority of H. Hanson, driller, Windom. 

Windom. — Approximate section reported for the deep city well. 

The altitudes of the second, third, and fourth sections are only 
approximately known. 



COTTONWOOD COUNTY. 157 

of shale and sandstone enters the county from the south, west, and 
north, between the glacial drift and the quartzite. It is probably 
all Cretaceous in age, although the lower portion may be in part 
Paleozoic. If the drift were all removed from Cottonwood County, 
about one-half of the surface (the central, northeastern, and east- 
central parts) would constitute a quartzite area standing conspicu- 
ously above the adjacent region and surrounded and overlapped by 
nearly horizontal strata of Cretaceous sediments, somewhat as the 
ocean surrounds and overlaps an island. 

Yield of water. — In the vicinity of Windom several wells have 
been successfully finished at a depth of about 300 feet in beds of 
Cretaceous sands. The city well at Windom, which was given the 
most severe test, was pumped continuously for twenty-four hours 
at the rate of 120 gallons a minute. At Westbrook and Lamberton 
drilling into the Cretaceous has been less successful. The mill well 
at Westbrook does not yield a great supply, and the railway well 
seems never to have been satisfactory. At Lamberton no water- 
bearing stratum of consequence was found after the shale was 
entered, but in the vicinities of Walnut Grove, Revere, and San- 
born there are many good wells supplied apparently from the 
Cretaceous. 

Head of the water. — At Windom the Cretaceous water rises to a 
level about 100 feet below the surface, or approximately 1,260 feet 
above the sea; in the mill well at Westbrook (according to report) 
to about 50 feet below the surface, or 1,370 feet above the sea; and 
at Walnut Grove, near the northwest corner of this county, to about 
12 feet below the surface, or 1,216 feet above the sea. The Cre- 
taceous area of flowing wells of Lyon and Redwood counties extends 
approximately to the Cottonwood county line (PI. IV). 

Quality of the water. — Two distinct types of water are derived from 
the Cretaceous strata of this region. Both are highly mineralized 
and both are rich in sulphates, but in one the sulphate radicle is in 
equilibrium chiefly with calcium and magnesium, giving the water 
a great permanent hardness and causing it to form much hard scale 
in boilers, while in the other the content of calcium and magnesium 
is low, and the sulphate radicle is to a much greater extent associ- 
ated with sodium and potassium, producing a soft water, which is 
liable, however, to cause foaming in boilers. The water obtained 
from the Cretaceous wells in the vicinity of Windom and that from 
the deep railway well at Westbrook belong to the first type, while 
the water from the mill well at Westbrook and that from the Cre- 
taceous wells in the region of Walnut Grove and Revere belong to 
to the second. Analyses 6, 7, 9, and 10, in the accompanying table, 
represent water of the first type; No. 8, water of the second. Soft- 
water horizons occur under Walnut Grove at 900 feet above sea 



158 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

level and higher, and under Westbrook at about 850 feet above sea 
level. Hard water seems to be found both above and below the 
soft. The city well at Windom terminates about 1,080 feet above 
the sea, and the other Cretaceous wells of that section at approxi- 
mately the same level. Although it is by no means safe to infer 
that softer water can be secured at Windom by drilling deeper, 
yet there is reason for believing that it may. It must be remem- 
bered that the mill well at Westbrook has only a small yield, and 
probably draws from a thin layer which may not furnish enough 
water to supply a well in other localities, and which, in careless 
drilling, can readily be passed through unnoticed. 

SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

Description. — This formation consists of a hard, red, siliceous 
rock, properly called quartzite, but commonly known throughout 
the region as the "red rock." The second tier of townships from 
the north contains the main quartzite ridge, and east of Highwater 
Creek there are many outcrops. The most westerly exposure is 
found along Highwater Creek, east of the village of Storden; the 
most southerly, in sec. 12, T. 106 N., R. 37 W. ; and the most north- 
erly, along Mound Creek, in T. 108 N., R. 36 W. (PL III). 

A ledge of rock, with an east-west or slightly southeast-northwest 
trend, seems to run beneath the village of Mountain Lake. It is 
entirely covered by drift, but is frequently encountered in drilling. 
Quartzite was struck 5 miles east and a little south of Mountain 
Lake, at a depth of 90 feet; in the village of Mountain Lake, at 70 
feet; 7 miles west and a little north of the village, at 60 feet; 2 miles 
farther west, at 40 feet; and at intermediate points along this line, 
at less than 100 feet. The well data that have been secured are too 
meager to show whether this is a ridge separated by a depression 
from the main ridge in the northern part of the county or rather 
the southern edge of a quartzite plateau continuous with the main 
ridge. West of the last-named locality (which is sec. 25, T. 106 N., 
R. 36 W.), the rock has not been encountered, and there is good 
reason to believe that it lies at a considerable depth; but 7 miles 
northwest (sec. 12, T. 106 N., R. 37 W.) it comes to the surface. 
Likewise, east of Jeffers (NW. I sec. 22, T. 107 N., R. 36 W.), a 
well 230 feet deep was drilled without reaching rock, while in the 
village of Jeffers it occurs at 104 feet. These data seem to indicate 
an ancient valley in the quartzite of this region. 

Yield of water. — This formation affords small quantities of water 
from its joint fissures and less firmly cemented layers. If in drill- 
ing a well a moderate yield is obtained before the rock is struck, 
the rock should not be penetrated for additional supplies ; but where 
the quartzite is near the surface and the yield of the overlying drift 



COTTONWOOD COUNTY. 159 

is small and uncertain, it is advisable to drill into the rock. Where 
attempts to get water from the quartzite have failed the reason has 
usually been that drilling was not continued to a sufficient depth. 

Quality of the water. — The quartzite itself contributes very little 
mineral matter, but its water, if it is derived from overlying glacial 
drift or Cretaceous strata, receives mineral constituents from these 
sources before it enters the quartzite. There is therefore a wide 
range in the content of the water from this formation. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Windom. — The city of Windom lies on the banks of Des Moines 
River. On the upland the glacial drift is about 300 feet deep, and 
the entire valley has been excavated out of this material (PI. IX). 
The public supply is a mixture of water from three zones — (1) surface 
clay and sand, which contribute water to a reservoir 14 feet in diam- 
eter and 16 feet deep; (2) a bed of sand and gravel at a depth of 
65 feet, which supplies five 3-inch driven wells, the water rising 
about 10 feet below the surface; and (3) a stratum of sand at a 
depth of 280 feet, which supplies an 8-inch drilled well already men- 
tioned. The 16-foot well is intended at present only as a reservoir 
to receive the natural flow of the driven wells, but it is not entirely 
waterproof and admits some shallow water. In 1907 the five driven 
wells would together yield several hundred gallons per minute when 
the 16-foot well was emptied so that they were given a head of about 
6 feet. They furnish most of the public supply, having an advantage 
over the deep well both in head and in the mineral quality of the 
water. Perhaps 25 per cent of the inhabitants utilize the public 
supply to some extent, but few use it exclusively. About 15,000 
gallons are consumed daily. Nearly all the people have private 
wells, many of which are driven into the surficial sands. The rail- 
way company uses water from a shallow well. 

Mountain Lake. — Quartzite has here been found at a depth of 70 
feet. Above the rock lies the glacial drift, which in some parts of 
the village contains beds of water-bearing sand. The public water- 
works are supplied from a well that is 12 feet in diameter and stops 
in a bed of sand at a depth of 40 feet. Its yield is not great and is 
much affected by drought. In July, 1907, pumping at the rate of 
approximately 50 gallons per minute lowered the water level from 
20 feet below the surface to 30 feet, while in the autumn of 1906 
the well could be emptied in 2^ hours. Although the water is hard, 
it is much better in this respect than that from the bottom of the drift, 
as can be seen by a comparison of analyses 2 and 3 in the table. About 
400 people use the public supply, and it is also used at the mill and 
the creamery. On an average approximately 20,000 gallons is con- 
sumed daily. The private wells are for the most part bored a short 



160 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

distance into the glacial drift. Where good beds of sand occur they 
provide ample supplies for domestic purposes, but where these are 
wanting it is often difficult to get a sufficiently large and permanent 
yield, and the water is not always good. The railway company has 
a well that is drilled into the quartzite. 

WestbrooJc. — The drift, which is deep in this locality, is underlain 
by Cretaceous shales and sandstones. Drilling 642 feet deep has 
not reached the quartzite. All the people use water from private 
wells, which are commonly between 15 and 30 feet in depth and 
rarely exceed 75 feet. They end in yellow clay or in sand and gravel 
and many of them furnish only small quantities of water and fail 
in dry years. A bored well, 3 feet in diameter and 64 feet deep, 
supplies the public waterworks. It is reported to have the follow- 
ing section: 

Section of village well at Westbrooh. 
[Authority, Bert Milligan, borer, Westbrook.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Yellow clay.. 
Blue clay] 
Blue sand, v.. 
Blue clay I 
Sand (.water). 



Feet. 
17 



Feet. 
IT 



In this well the water stands about 25 feet below the surface, and 
pumping at the rate of 25 gallons per minute empties the well in a 
little over an hour. The water that it yields is hard, as is shown by 
analysis 4 in the table, and is used only for the railway locomotives, 
for sprinkling the streets, and for fire protection. The mill welh 
which yields soft water, and the deep well drilled for the railway 
company have already been discussed. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

The wells which furnish farm supplies may be grouped into the 
following classes: (1) Wells driven^ into the surficial sandy deposits, 

(2) wells bored into yellow clay or gravelly beds near the surface, 

(3) wells bored into seams of sand and gravel interbedded with the 
blue bowlder clay, (4) wells drilled into these deeper seams, (5) 
wells drilled into Cretaceous strata of sand or sandstone, and (6) 
wells drilled into quartzite. The wells of the first group are virtually 
confined to the valley of Des Moines Kiver. Those of the second are 
generally unsatisfactory because of their small and uncertain supplies 



COTTONWOOD COUNTY. 161 

of water, and have to a great extent been abandoned for deeper 
wells, while most of those of the third group yield adequate and per- 
manent supplies and comprise a majority of the farm wells of the 
county. There are also many wells belonging to the fourth group 
and a few belonging to the last two. Drilled wells have a number of 
advantages over bored ones, and wells from 4 to 6 inches in diam- 
eter prove more satisfactory than those which are only 2 inches in 
diameter. 

Drilling into quartzite is avoided as much as possible because of 
the expense and difficulties involved. It is necessarily an expensive 
process, and it is well for a farmer fully to understand that fact before- 
hand. It is sometimes necessary to sink several hundred feet into 
the rock in order to get an adequate yield, while the cost per foot is 
great and increases with the depth. However, rock wells rarely need 
be failures. A driller with a heavy rig and a comprehensive knowl- 
edge of his trade can penetrate quartzite to an indefinite depth, and 
is seldom obliged to abandon a hole. But this kind of work presents 
peculiar difficulties and should not be undertaken without a thor- 
ough apprenticeship, nor with an outfit that is too light. The drill- 
ing of wells in quartzite is discussed on pages 87-88. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Public, industrial, and private supplies are obtained chiefly from 
seams of sand and gravel interbedded with bowlder clay, and these 
will always be the most accessible and valuable sources. 

The strata of sand and sandstone found beneath shale (" soap- 
stone") in the southern and western portions of the county, at depths 
of 300 feet or more, generally but not always yield large quantities 
of water. The water from this source will rise to a level about 100 
feet below the surface at the southern margin of the county, and vir- 
tually to the surface at the northern. Deep drilling should not be 
undertaken for the purpose of securing flowing wells except in the 
northwestern corner. 

In the northern part both hard and soft water horizons have been 
discovered. In the southern only hard water has thus far been 
found, although it is possible that softer water exists at greater 
depths than have yet been reached. (See the reports on adjoining 
counties.) 

Where the Sioux quartzite ("red rock") is so near the surface that 
no adequate source of water is found above it, it is advisable to drill 
into the rock, which if penetrated to a sufficient depth will in nearly 
all instances provide permanent though small supplies, 
60920°— wsp 256—11 11 



162 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Mineral analyses of water in Cottonwood County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, 
etc.). 



Cretaceous. 



Depth feet.. 

Diameter of well i .ich.es. . 

Silica(Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(FeaOs+AlsOa) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SOj) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



40 

144 



60 
156 
28 



26 



713 



133 

42 

21 

.0 

456 

157 

11 

3.5 

611 



313 
105 
127 



1.7 

235 
78 
142 



4 
302 
102 
114 



527 

1,012 

3 



504 

769 

3 



620 
876 



1,846 



1,501 



1,729 



292 
2 
14 
2.5 

11 
158 
57 
43 

.0 

459 

346 

3 

.0 

845 



320 

8 

31 



568 
2 



642 
8 
33 



642 
8 
21 



219 
75 
150 



37 
9 

512 



287 
99 
129 



6.4 
159 
46 
3-18 



539 

705 

6 



1,545 



283 

933 

13 

2.1 

1,710 



713 

759 

19 



385 

971 

12 



1,677 



1,797 



1. Railway well at Windom. December 5, 1900. 

2. Village well at Mountain Lake. July 18, 1907. 

3. Well at Mountain Lake. January, 1900. 

4. Village well at Westbrook. July 9, 1903. 

5. Creamery well at Bingham Lake. January, 1900. 

6. Well of A. E. Johnson, 5 miles south of Windom (Jackson County). July 19, 1907. 

7. Railway well at Bingham Lake. June 21, 1900. 

8. Well at the flouring mill at Westbrook. December 26, 1907. 

9. Railway well at Westbrook. May 16, 1901. 

10. Railway well at Westbrook. June 28, 1901. 

Analyses 2 and 6 were made for the United States Geological Survey by II. A. Whittaker, chemist Min- 
nesota state board of health. Analysis 8 was made for the United States Geological Survey by M. G. Rob- 
erts, chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, and 10 were furnished by G. N. 
Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 

DAKOTA COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

Dakota County is one of the lowest of those bordering Mississippi 
River in southeastern Minnesota. The greater part of the land is less 
than 1 ; 050 feet above sea level, or only 200 to 300 feet above the river. 
The plateau character is less marked than in most counties, owing to 
the irregularity of the morainic surface in the eastern and northern 
parts of the county. Throughout this morainic area the surface is a 
confused jumble of sharp cones and irregular gravelly hills of all sorts, 
alternating with sharp hopper-shaped or irregular basins of great 
depth, often occupied by ponds and lakes. In many places the eleva- 
tion varies 100 to 150 feet within a distance of a few rods. The rock 
surface south of the moraine, and especially in the southern portion 
of the county, is somewhat irregular, owing to the fact that the softer 
rocks have been worn down to levels considerably lower than the 
more resistant beds, such as the Galena limestone, Decorah shale, 
and Platteville limestone afford. At several points these limestones 
give rise to mounds and flat-crested hills, resembling the buttes and 
mesas of the West. 



DAKOTA COUNTY. 163 

Both Mississippi and Minnesota rivers are bordered by bluffs, but 
of different character, those of the former being generally of rock, 
while those of the latter are commonly of drift. Both streams have 
flood plains 1 to 2 or more miles in width. With the exception 
of these streams and Vermilion and Cannon rivers, the county is 
without important drainage lines, and shows little to suggest the deep 
sharp valleys and intervening narrow-crested ridges so characteristic 
of the counties of the southeast. This fact is due in part to its 
slighter elevation above the Mississippi and the consequent low grade 
of the streams, and in part to the presence of the drift covering which 
has filled the ancient valleys. 

Other irregularities are due to the effect of glacial and interglacial 
drainage in scouring out channels or forming terraces along the sides 
of the valleys. Among these lines of glacial drainage may be men- 
tioned particularly one leading from near Mendota southeastward 
across the moraine to the Mississippi Valley near Gray Cloud Island; 
one extending from Minnesota River near the county line in T. 115 N., 
R. 20 W., southeast to the vicinity of Farmington; another entering 
the county near Prairie Lake and extending eastward to the Vermilion 
Valley by way of Fairfield and Farmington; and those through the 
valley of Cannon River by way of its tributary, Chub Creek. Through 
all these ancient valleys large volumes of water poured from the ice 
in the west, excavating broad channels, often bordered by noticeable 
bluffs, and depositing extensive sheets of sand and gravel. At this 
time the Mississippi was flowing at an elevation of 100 to 150 feet 
above its present level, and, together with the glacial channels men- 
tioned, formed the long terrace at Inver Grove and extensive terrace 
flats in the vicinity of Hastings. At a later period the drainage of 
this region became readjusted, several of the valleys were filled with 
morainic material, and the streams then remaining began to erode the 
earlier deposits, eventually excavating the channels in which they 
now flow. On their sides remnants of the old levels are preserved as 
terraces standing 100 to 200 feet above the present bottoms. These 
terraces are now prominent features of the valley walls along Missis- 
sippi, Minnesota, and Cannon rivers. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The alluvium of Dakota County is a loamy stratified sand and gravel 
deposited by the present streams in the Mississippi and associated 
valleys. Its thickness reaches a maximum of 100 feet or more. 
Considerable water occurs in the materials, but owing to the silt 
present it is sometimes given up very slowly. Supplies for domestic 
purposes and for small industrial establishments can generally be 
obtained, 



164 UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The terrace sands and gravels lie 100 to 125 feet or more above the 
streams. They occur in narrow belts along the Mississippi south of 
St. Paul, widening out at the eastward swing of the river to a point 
near Hastings, where they are over 10 miles wide. They are 100 feet 
thick or more in most places, and at a few points reach a thickness of 
over 200 feet, as in the buried channel of the Mississippi beneath the 
Hastings Prairie. They contain considerable water in places, but, 
because of their porous nature, are freely drained on the side toward 
the valleys, making it necessary for wells to go nearly to the river level 
before obtaining permanent supplies. In many localities rock or 
drift is encountered before this level is reached, and here the wells 
usually fail to secure adequate supplies from the terrace deposits. 
This is true at several points on the Hastings Prairie. 

Outwash gravels, which are stratified deposits made by the waters 
flowing from the ice front in the Pleistocene epoch, occur in valleys 
southeast of Mendota, at Crystal Lake, along Vermilion River near 
Farmington, and along Cannon River in the southern part of the 
county. Water is found in them in considerable amounts, supplied 
partly by rainfall and partly by inflow from the surrounding hills. 
It is usually near the surface and is available to wells of ordinary 
depth, affording ample supplies for farm and domestic or small 
industrial purposes. 

The glacial drift is of two types — (1) the older or pre- Wisconsin 
drift, which underlies the uplands in the eastern two-thirds of the 
county, and is usually a thin deposit and not an important source 
of supply, although it carries some water in its sandy beds; and 
(2) the younger or Wisconsin drift, which is distinguished from the 
older drift by the absence of weathering. It constitutes the surface 
formation over a considerable part of the western portion of the 
county, in places reaching a thickness of 100 feet or more. Being 
of greater depth, it is a better source of supply than the older drift 
and yields water to a large number of farm wells. In general, how- 
ever, the available amounts are not sufficient for large industrial or 
public supplies. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

In this county the series comprising the Galena limestone, Decorah 
shale, and Platteville limestone is prevailingly shaly, but contains 
some thin layers of limestone. The lowest 20 feet consists of two 
beds of magnesian limestone separated by a bed of crumbling and 
rapidly disintegrating shale. The maximum thickness of these rocks 
in this county appears to be about 175 feet. They underlie the larger 
part of northwestern Dakota County, the best exposures being in 
the highlands south of St. Paul. Over the greater part of the area 
they are covered by thick deposits of drift and are penetrated by 



DAKOTA COUNTY. 165 

but few wells. Near the river the water from these beds has been 
drained away, but elsewhere the supply is somewhat larger, though 
generally less than in the overhang drift. 

The St. Peter sandstone has a maximum thickness in Dakota 
County of about 160 feet. It outcrops along the valley of the Missis- 
sippi and forms the surface formation over extensive upland areas 
in the southwestern part of the county- Beneath the shaly beds 
that occur in the lower part of the formation considerable amounts of 
water under artesian pressure are found. The upper part of the for- 
mation, however, has been largely drained of its supplies by the deep 
gorge of the Mississippi. In the uplands, where they are not drained 
by adjacent valleys, good supplies are afforded to dug and drilled 
wells, but the water, being unconfined, is under little head and is not 
sufficient in amount to meet the needs of large industries or public 
supplies. 

The Shakopee dolomite, which here is about 25 feet thick, underlies 
considerable areas of the uplands as well as the Vermilion and Cannon 
river valleys. It carries some water in interbedded lenses of sandstone 
and in the joints and caverns formed by the extensive leaching the 
formation has undergone, but the amounts are less than in the over- 
lying drift. Near the Mississippi even these small supplies are lost 
by drainage. 

The New Richmond sandstone, which appears to have a consider- 
able thickness in its typical development in southern Minnesota, is 
not recognized everywhere in this county. In some localities, how- 
ever, it appears to be present and to yield supplies to many private 
wells. The yield would probably nowhere be sufficient for public 
supplies. 

The Oneota dolomite, which is petrographically similar to the 
Shakopee, occurs at the surface along Mississippi River near Hast- 
ings and for some distance south, and underlies the entire county. 
It carries a little water which is yielded to private wells, especially 
near Hastings. It is important as providing a cap to confine the 
waters of the underlying sandstone. 

The Jordan sandstone underlies the Mississippi Valley in the 
northern part of the county and affords abundant supplies for all 
ordinary purposes. The water is under sufficient head to carry it 
considerably above the river level. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of alternating beds of lime- 
stone, shale, etc. It has a total thickness of about 200 feet, of which 
75 feet is exposed above the river level below Hastings. It contains 
little water. 

The Dresbach sandstone lies beneath the St. Lawrence formation 
and is in turn underlain by shales. The sandstone beds are generally 
saturated with water under considerable pressure and afford supplies 



166 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



adequate for all ordinary demands. In the valleys of Mississippi and 
Cannon rivers they give rise to flows. 

The red clastic series underlies the shales last mentioned, and is 
found in all drillings in southeastern Minnesota which have pene- 
trated to. that depth. In thickness these rocks vary more than any 
other division in this part of the State. They are of but little value 
for yielding water supplies. 

WELL RECORDS. 

Below are given three typical well sections together with the prob- 
able correlations of the strata: 

Section of Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Mendota. 

[Authorities: W. E. Swan, driller; N. H. Winchell, Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey 
Minnesota, 18S5, pp. 55-56; C W. Hall, Bull. Minnesota Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, No. 1, 1889, p. 141.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



St. Peter sandstone, including talus 

Shakopee dolomite 

New Richmond sandstone (estimated) 

Oneota dolomite 

Jordan sandstone 

St. Lawrence and lower formations: 

Gray shale 

Green shale .' 

Limestone 

Blue shale 

Sandstone 

"Hard" rock,, inclosing beds of shale (not sandstone) 



Feet. 
147 
40 
15 
90 
95 

50 
110 
10 
30 
125 
145 



Feet. 
147 
187 
202 
292 
387 

437 
547 
557 
587 
712 
857 



Section of Swift & Co. well at South St. Paul. 





Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 




Feet. 

40 

125 

130 

155 
50 
140 

200 
40 


Feet. 
40 




165 




295 


St. Lawrence and lower formations: 


450 




500 


Shale 


640 




840 


Red clastic series 


880 







DAKOTA COUNTY. 167 

Section of Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Hastings. 



Oneota dolomite: 

Ordinary magnesian limestone 

White sandstone 

Sandy magnesian limestone 

Jordan sandstone: 

Sandstone, somewhat ferruginous 

St. Lawrence and underlying formations: 

White sandy shale 

Sand, sandy shale, and dolomite 

Sand, and green sand 

Green shale and green sand 

Sandy shale, sand, and green sand 

Dresbach sandstone, with lumps of iron pyrite 

Green sandy shale 

Blue shale 

Sand, and green sand 

Gray shale, sand, and limestone 

Sandstone and lumps of iron pyrite and some limestone 

Fine to coarse sandstone 

Red clastic series: 

Fine to coarse sandstone, with traces of red shale 

White and pink sands 

Red shale with some white sand 

Red and white sandstones 

Red shale 

White sand and some red shale 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 
SO 
15 
12 

95 

25 
43 
20 

110 
15 
60 
20 
70 
20 
5 
30 

160 
40 

30 
20 
15 
40 
235 



Depth. 



Feet. 
80 
95 
107 

202 

227 
270 
290 
400 
415 
475 
495 
565 
585 
590 
620 
780 
820 

850 
870 
885 
925 
1,160 



a Drilled in 18S5 by W. E. Swan; see references for the well at Mendota, above. 



WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Hastings. — This city stretches from the flood plain of the Missis- 
sippi to the summits of the morainic bluffs which stand to the west. 
The business part is built upon a shelf of the dolomites of the Prairie 
du Chien group, and the larger part of the residence district lies upon 
the broad terrace 100 to 120 feet above Mississippi River. Wells sunk 
upon this terrace have furnished the water supply for most of the 
inhabitants. Several deeper wells penetrating the sandstone forma- 
tions have also been drilled, among which may be mentioned the one 
at the Gardiner Mills, 850 feet in depth, the one at the state asylum, 
830 feet in depth, and the one belonging to the Chicago, Milwaukee 
and St. Paul Railway Company, the section of which is given above. 
Recently a well 495 feet deep has been drilled for the city, and a sys- 
tem of public waterworks is being installed. 

South St. Paul. — The residence portion of South St. Paul is built 
upon the terrace that lies along the west side of Mississippi River at 
an elevation of 100 feet above the stream. Wells 165 feet in depth 
obtain an abundant supply of water from the Jordan sandstone, while 
a second great reservoir of underlying water occurs at a depth of 500 
feet, and the most copious reservoir of all is tapped at a depth of 650 
feet. All these water-bearing formations yield artesian supplies in 
abundant quantities. The section shown by the group of wells 
owned by Swift & Co. is given above. Here as elsewhere there is a 
question as to the permanence of the artesian supply. A few years 



168 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA, 



ago the well belonging to the Union Rendering Company, which is a 
short distance from the plant of Swift & Co., flowed continuously at 

the surface. At the present time this well Hows intermittently. On 
Sundays there is always a flow, caused, no doubt, by the shutting 
down of some of the wells belonging to Swift & Co., the Stock Yards 
Company, and others. This indicates that the flow is not as good 
as formerly and that the diminution of head is due to the heavy 
demands made upon the deep water. The public supply, which is 
used by about one-halt' the people, is obtained from a flowing well 
880 feet deep. 

Mendota. — In this village the supply is derived chiefly from com- 
paratively shallow wells. The St. Peter sandstone affords a reservoir 
of great capacity. The section of an artesian well drilled for the 
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company in 1884 is given 
above. The water from this well is rather hard but does not differ 
materially from the water drawn from the same formation in Min- 
neapolis and St. Paul. The well originally flowed 300 gallons a min- 
ute at 14 feet above the ground, but now barely Hows at the surface. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The largest and most permanent stores of water exist in the sand- 
stones, but supplies adequate for farm and domestic use can fre- 
quently be obtained at less depths from the surface deposits. In the 
valley of the Mississippi, and probably also in the valley of Cannon 
River. Hows can be obtained from the sandstone strata. When the 
red clastic series is encountered drilling should be discontinued. 

Mineral analyses of water in Dakota County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Glacial drift. 



St. 
Peter 

sand- 
stone. 



Shakopee t o 
Oneota dolo- 
mite. 



Jordan sand- 
stone. 



Depth feet . 

Silica (SiOa) 

Iron (Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides t, I 

AlsOs) 

Calcium (Ca.) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium iX;i-K*. 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO s ; 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 

Chlorine (Cl> 

Total solids 



90 
IS 
1.6 



143 

10 

4 



69 

i."4 



$7 
26 

10 
34$ 

50 

356 



86 
28 
3.2 

33$ 
SI 

4.9 

339 



337 
44 
OS 

354 



333 

17 



303 



269 

70 



352 





100 

"24"' 



49 

•23 

4.4 

222 

~13 

5.3 
263 



35 

01 

•JO 

358 



DODGE COUNTY. 

Mineral analyses of water in Dakota County — Continued. 



169 



Dresbach sandstone and underlying shale. 



16. 



Depth feet. 

Bilica (SiOs) 

Iron ( Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (F2O3+ 

A1 2 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle ( IICO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO-i) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



2.1 

52 

17 

12 

2i,2 

7 

1.3 
220 



52 

17 

11 

259 

8.8 

1.8 

220 



661 

12 



1,100 
11 



1,100 
1.7 



855 

.9 

Small. 



39 
58 

414 
94 
65 

580 



04 
28 
185 
195 
80 
308 
773 



85 
32 
215 
425 
80 
200 
897 



75 
30 
100 
313 
147 
92 
020 



52 

14 

0.4 

258 

0.0 

12 

254 



475 
13 



26 
16 

244 
45 
12 

288 



1. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Farminglon. August, 1890. 

2. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Farmington. November 1, 1901. 

3. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Farmington. November, 1900. 

4. "Husausa water" well at Mendota. 

5. Well of Magnus Brown at Farmington. November, 1900. 

0. Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway well at Inver Grove. 

7. Swift &. Co. well at South St. Paul. 

8. City well at Hastings; water taken at the depth of 140 feet. November, 1907. 

9. Railway well at Mendota. August, 1890. 

10. Railway well at Mendota. May, 1901. 

11. Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway well at Mendota. April, 1901. 

12. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway artesian well at Hastings. 1885. 

13. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Hastings. 1885. 

14. Gardiner Mills well at Hastings. 

15. Swift & Co. well at South St. Paul. 1905. 
10. City well at Hastings. November, 1907. 

Analyses 8 and 10 were made by H. A. Whittaker, chemist, Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 
3 and 5 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. S. Spaulding. Analyses 1, 2, 9, and 10 
were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. Analy- 
sis 4 was made by Prof. C. F. Sidener, University of Minnesota. Analysis 6 was furnished by J. M. Brown, 
division engineer, Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway Company. Analyses 7 and 15 were furnished 
by W. D. Richardson. Analysis 11 was furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist, Chicago, St. Paul, Minne- 
apolis and Omaha Railway Company. Analysis 12 was made by Prof. J. A. Dodge, University of Minne- 
sota. Analysis 13 was made by J. P. Magnusson, University of Minnesota. 

DODGE COUNTY. 



By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Much of the surface of Dodge County is very even, including large 
expanses in which there is hardly a noticeable irregularity. The 
highest land is along the southern edge, where the elevation above 
sea level reaches 1,350 feet and is generally more than 1,300 feet. 
In the northern portion most of the land stands between 1,200 and 
1,300 feet but descends to 1,100 feet along the northern border. 
The country is so flat that the drainage is very poor, considerable 
areas being wet and marshy before they are artificially drained. 
The county is crossed by the two middle branches of Zumbro River; 
the southern branches head along the eastern border. In the south- 
western part there is a series of marshy depressions which at high 
water drain south into Cedar River. Most of the streams flow in 
shallow and somewhat indefinite channels, but the middle forks of 
the Zumbro near the eastern edge of the county have valleys 200 
feet in depth, bordered in places by more or less precipitous banks. 



170 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The surface deposits consist chiefly of glacial drift, which is a 
heterogeneous mixture of clay with pebbles and bowlders, locally 
containing interbedded layers of water-bearing sand and gravel. In 
most instances adequate supplies for domestic and farm purposes 
and even for small industries may be obtained. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

Beneath the surface deposits there is a succession of alternating 
beds of shale and limestone, the latter greatly predominating. At 
the southern margin of the county these are believed to embrace 
the Platteville limestone, Decorah shale, and Galena limestone, and 
also to include the lowest beds of the overlying Maquoketa shale, 
attaining a total thickness of several hundred feet. Toward the 
northeast this series of beds gradually thins out, the beds terminating 
successively from the top downward, until, in the valleys near the 
northeastern corner, underlying formations come to the surface. 
Below are given two well sections which illustrate this series in a 
general way. The first is the log of the well drilled for the Chicago 
Great Western Eailway Company in the village of Hayfield, near 
the southern extremity of the county. This well apparently passed 
through 390 feet of Ordovician strata without reaching the St. Peter 
sandstone. The second section is that of the well drilled for the same 
railway company at Dodge Center, which lies very near the geographic 
center of the county. In this section the Maquoketa shale appears 
to be absent. 

Well section at Hayfield. 

[Authority, J. J. Banks.] 



Glacial drift: 

Black soil 

Gravel 

Yellow clay 

Quicksand 

Blue clay 

Sand and clay 

Maquoketa, Galena, etc.: 

Limestone 

Shale 

Limestone 

Shale 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 



112 
28 

335 
25 
10 
20 



Depth. 



Feet. 
2 
4 
12 
15 
127 
155 

490 
515 
525 
545 



DODGE COUNTY. 171 

Well section at Dodge Center. 
[Authority, Mr. Knowlton, assistant chief engineer Chicago Great Western Railway Company.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift: Feet. 

Clay 28 

Clay and quicksand 12 

Blue clay and bowlders 44 

Blue clay 28 

Galena limestone and lower formations: 

Limestone and yellow clay 10 

Limestone 102 

"Hard rock" 52 

Shale 73 

" Hard rock" 17 

White shale 11 

Shale 82 

Sandstone (probably St. Peter) : 31 

Shale I 14 



Feet. 



40 
84 
112 

122 

224 
276 
349 
366 
377 
459 
490 
504 



Though the Galena and Platteville limestones contain no strong 
water-bearing beds, they yield supplies adequate for most ordinary 
purposes wherever they lie below the ground-water level, and espe- 
cially where they are immediately underlain by a bed of impervious 
shale. 

The St. Peter sandstone, which is about 100 feet thick, is exposed 
along the Zumbro Valley in the northeastern portion of the county, 
whence it dips southwestward and passes beneath the Platteville. 
Except near its outcrop it affords strong supplies of water. 

Beneath the St. Peter sandstone occurs a succession of limestones, 
shales, and sandstones. Several of the sandstones are important 
water-bearing beds. These include (1) the New Richmond, about 
20 feet thick and 35 feet below the base of the St. Peter; (2) the 
Jordan, about 120 feet thick and 250 feet below the St. Peter; (3) 
the Dresbach, about 80 feet thick and 600 feet below the St. Peter. 
All these would yield copiously, but there is no. object in drilling to 
them so long as adequate supplies can be obtained from the St. Peter. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Kasson. — The village of Kasson is provided with a public supply 
drawn from the St. Peter sandstone, which lies at a depth of about 
300 feet and yields a safer and more permanent supply than any zone 
nearer the surface. 

West Concord. — In West Concord the water supply is virtually all 
derived from private wells. The public waterworks take water from 
a drilled w r ell 150 feet deep. 



172 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Hayfield. — The stratigrapliic section near Hayfield is shown by the 
log of the railway well which is given above. Adequate water supplies 
are obtained at moderate depths from the glacial drift and the 
Galena and Platteville limestones. The public waterworks are sup- 
plied from .a well 377 feet deep, which ends in either the Galena or the 
Platteville. An analysis of the water is given in the accompanying 
table. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Except in the northeastern corner of the county, an adequate 
supply of water for ordinary purposes can be obtained at moderate 
depths from the glacial drift or the Galena and Platteville limestones. 
Owing to the unbroken surface and to the impervious strata beneath 
the water-bearing beds, the water usually stands relatively near the 
top of the wells. As is shown by the analyses, the water is all 
moderately hard. 

Whenever supplies are desired larger than can be derived from the 
drift or the Galena and Platteville limestones, drilling should be con- 
tinued to the St. Peter sandstone, which underlies virtually the 
entire county and is nowhere more than a few hundred feet below 
the surface. Nothing would generally be gained from drilling to 
still lower zones, for the water which they contain is fully as hard as 
that from the St. Peter and will rise no higher. 

Mineral analyses of water in Dodge County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Ms) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (SO^ 

Chlorine (CD 

Total solids 



Glacial drift and Galena lime- 
stone. 



120 
14 



92 

34 
5 

447 
5.9 
4.5 



140 
12 



73 
21 
7.5 



2S9 



240 
21 



114 

35 
8.5 
440 

5S 

13 
487 



S.7 

2.8 

SS 

28 

11 

234 

39 

13 

326 



St. Pe- 
ter 
sand- 
stone. 



504 
IS 
1.3 
SS 
24 
19 
328 
53 
7.3 
374 



1. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Claremont. November, 1SS8. 

2. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Kasson. June, 1SS9. 

3. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Claremont. October, 1S90. 

4. Well furnishing the public supply at Hayfield. November. 1900. 

5. Chicago Great Western Railway well at bodge Center. November, 1900. 

Analyses 4 and 5 were made for the U. S. Geological Survey by H. S. Spaulding and Prof. W. S. Hen- 
drixsoii, respectively. Analyses 1, 2, and 3 were furnished by'G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and 
Northwestern Railway Company. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 173 

FARIBAULT COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Of the nine counties bordering on Iowa, Faribault occupies the 
middle place. The highest tracts within this county are the morainic 
belt about Elmore, on the southern border, where the elevation 
exceeds 1,250 feet above sea level on either side of Blue Earth River, 
and the morainic belt culminating in the Kiester Hills, which reach 
an elevation of more than 1,400 feet above sea level. The Kiester 
Hills and their extension stretch across the county with a northwest- 
southeast trend for 25 miles. The remainder of the county is strik- 
ingly level and plateau-like. According to Winchell the northern 
part is probably the bed of an ancient lake, known as Lake Minnesota. 

The surface drainage of Faribault County is effected through Blue 
Earth River and its tributaries. This stream rises in northern Iowa 
and flows almost due north across Faribault County, descending 
approximately 5 feet to the mile and occupying a valley which has 
been cut on an average to a depth of nearly 100 feet. The branches 
of the Blue Earth also lie in deeply grooved valleys cut into the plain 
that comprises a large proportion of the surface of the county. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Faribault County is everywhere deeply covered with glacial drift, 
the older rocks rarely occurring within 100 feet of the surface. The 
drift is a heterogeneous mixture of gray pebbly clay containing grav- 
elly or sandy layers that commonly yield good supplies of water. 
The morainal deposits, which have already been referred to, contain 
much gravel and sand and are marked by irregular rolling surfaces. 
Water is present in ample quantities, but on the elevations the 
ground-water level is relatively far below the surface. The glacial 
lake deposits, which were laid down when Lake Minnesota existed 
as a result of the obstruction of Minnesota River to the north, consist 
of ill-assorted sands and gravels about 10 feet thick, or too thin to be 
important as water bearers. 

The alluvium of Faribault County consists of silty sands and 
gravels deposited along the present streams. These deposits, wher- 
ever utilized, seem to afford sufficient water for all ordinary purposes. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

On the map of the Geological Survey of Iowa 6 the Mississippian 
limestone is indicated as reaching the state line opposite the western 
half of Faribault'County. As in this region the drift is thick and there 
has been little deep drilling, it is uncertain whether the Mississippian 
actually extends into Minnesota. It has never been recognized. 

a Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, pp. 460-461. 
?> Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Iowa, vol. 17, 1906, PI. I. 



174 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Devonian rocks are supposed to underlie the drift throughout a 
small area in the southwestern corner of the county. Fair supplies 
of water are generally obtained from the sandstone layer that is 
present locally in these beds. 

The Galena limestone, Decorah shale, and Platteville limestone, 
according to the record of the well in Freeborn, in the next county 
to the east, appear to have a combined thickness of about 300 feet. 
The limestones contain a large quantity of water fed from the over- 
lying drift. This water is given up generously to wells and in some 
instances is under sufficient head to be lifted nearly or quite to the 
surface. 

The St. Peter sandstone appears to lie immediately beneath the 
drift in an area northwest of a line extending approximately from 
Minnesota Lake through Blue Earth to Martin County. It is about 
100 feet thick and consists of white or yellow sands commonly carry- 
ing large amounts of water which is available to wells penetrating 
through the overlying materials. 

The Prairie du Chien group (which when complete includes the 
Shakopee, New Richmond, and Oneota formations) is present imme- 
diately below the drift in the northwestern corner of the county. 
The rocks of this group here present consist of pink to buff magne- 
sian limestone, apparently characterized by joints and other fissures 
in the upper part, in which is found considerable water derived from 
the overlying drift. The New Richmond sandstone, a prominent 
water-bearing formation of this group in more easterly counties, has 
not been recognized. 

The Jordan sandstone is about 75 feet thick. It probably comes 
to the subglacial surface in the northwestern corner of the county, 
but dips southeastwardly beneath the Prairie du Chien group and 
thus underlies the whole county. It is reached by deep rock wells 
and affords large supplies of water, supplementing to an important 
degree the other water-bearing beds. 

Beneath the Jordan lie about 200 feet of St. Lawrence formation 
(limestone and shale), below which, in turn, is the Dresbach sand- 
stone and underlying shales, several hundred feet in thickness. Their 
water-bearing capacity here is similar to that which they have in 
other counties. The Dresbach sandstone could be depended on for 
supplies if the overlying beds should fail. The red clastic series and 
the granite beneath are not water bearing to an important degree. 

WELL RECORDS. 

Below are given the sections revealed by drilling in two localities 
of this county, together with the probable correlations of these sec- 
tions. The first is the log of the deep well sunk for the city of Blue 
Earth; the second is that of a boring in the village of Wells, 



FARIBAULT COUNTY. 



175 



Well section at Blue Earth. 
[Authority, G. W. Buswell.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift: 

Soil 

Yellow and blue clay 

Gray clay 

Sand and quicksand (water) 

Blue clay 

White sand (water) 

Gravel 

"Drift rock" 

Platteville and Galena (?): 

Limestone 

"Hard rock" 

St. Peter: 

Sandstone 

Prairie du Chien group: 

Limestone 

Jordan sandstone 

St. Lawrence formation (limestone and shale) 

Dresbach sandstone 

Shales 

Red shale and sand 

Granite 



Feet. 
3 
3 
58 
40 
25 
69 
5 
2 



2 
91 

215 
80 

170 
65 

115 

200 
20 



Feet. 
3 
6 
64 
104 
129 
198 
203 
205 

285 
287 

378 

593 

673 

843 

908 

1,023 

1,223 

1,243 



Well section at Wells. 
[Authority, C. F. Loweth, civil engineer.' 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift 

Limestone (probably Galena) 

Sandstone (water) 

Blue shale 

Blue limestone 

White shale 

White limestone and sandstone (water) 

Green shale 

Sandstone (St. Peter) entered. 



Feet. 

125 

30 

3 

42 
8 
18 
10 
30 



Feet. 
125 
155 
158 
200 
208 
226 
236 
266 



UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — As the ground-water level is generally near the surface 
there are many very shallow wells. These have not, however, 
proved to be entirely satisfactory either in their yield or in the 
quality of their water, and in many localities it has been necessary 
to sink wells to deeper water horizons. Some of these deeper wells 
obtain their supplies from sandy or gravelly layers in the lower por- 
tion of the drift, but many of them enter the underlying rock and 
draw from sandstone or limestone. The wells penetrating to the 
deep-lying, water-bearing sandstones have been sunk for industrial 
and public supplies and for the use of large stock farms. 

Head of the water. — Everywhere within the glacial drift the water 
is under pressure, the layers of bowlder clay furnishing a confining 
bed. Thus wherever wells are drilled the water rises, and many 
wells flow when casing is applied. The head of the water is derived 
from the morainal districts in the eastern and southern parts of the 



176 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

county. The valleys of the larger streams have cut below the general 
level of the ground-water table, giving rise to springs from the upper 
beds and to flowing wells from the lower. Few of the flowing wells 
are more than 75 feet deep and many are less than 60 feet. They are 
situated along Blue Earth and Maple rivers and their tributaries, 
from the southern boundary of the county northward to the Blue 
Earth county line. In fact, it is possible to obtain flowing wells in 
nearly every valley in the county, the conditions being especially 
favorable in the deepest ones or those nearest the morainal ridges 
(PI. IV). Flows are also obtained on the lower ground in the vicinity 
of Wells, the head and supply apparently originating in the morainal 
ridge a few miles southwest of the village. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Blue Earth. — The position and extent of the water-bearing layers 
beneath the city of Blue Earth are shown in the careful record given 
above of the well drilled in 1889. Several thick water-bearing beds 
occur in the glacial drift, which is here 200 feet deep. The lowest of 
these beds yields the largest supplies. Probably the best source of 
water for the city is the St. Peter sandstone, which is reached at 285 
feet and is 90 feet thick or more. Below the St. Peter lies the Jordan 
sandstone, which is 80 feet thick. At the depth of 840 feet the Dres- 
bach sandstone is reached, and this, with the underlying shaly sand- 
stone, extends 180 feet downward. It furnishes large supplies but 
the water has not the quality of that from the St. Peter and Jordan. 

The deep city well was drilled to a depth of 1,243 feet in the hope 
of obtaining a flow. The water from the lower beds was somewhat 
salty and hard, and consequently the well was plugged at the top of 
the red sandstone and shale 200 feet above the bottom. Subse- 
quently the well filled still higher, and the supply of water gradually 
diminished while the population of the city increased. Hence, in 
1904 a second well was sunk to the bottom of the Jordan sandstone. 
The new well is very near the old one and its log is essentially the 
same. During the drilling of the well any connection that might exist 
between the two was carefully noted. It was observed that in the 
new well, as in the old, water came freely from the deeper layers of 
glacial drift. When the St. Peter sandstone was entered, pumping 
at the old well lowered the supply in the new. The new well was 
cased to the top of the Jordan, or to a depth of about 590 feet. Sub- 
sequent operation, however, has convinced the authorities that the 
St. Peter is the stronger water producer of the two and steps are 
being taken to utilize both instead of confining the supply to the 
Jordan. The new well yields 350 gallons per minute. 

Wells. — The village of Wells stands on a prairie 1,150 feet above 
sea level. From this point the surface rises very gradually toward 



FAKIBAULT COUNTY. 177 

the east and southeast, attaining an altitude considerably above 
that of the village. The water supply comes from two rather distinct 
zones — beds of sand and gravel in the glacial drift beneath the blue 
bowlder clay and sandstone strata at greater depths. (See the section 
given above.) In former years the water flowed several feet above 
the surface wherever a pipe was driven through the blue clay, and 
consequently it was a very simple matter to obtain water. As the 
quantity diminished and as citizens sought for further supplies, they 
found, on passing through the blue shale and limestone, that a white 
sandstone was reached and that this also yields generously. Analysis 
11 gives the composition of the water from this zone. The supply 
for the waterworks is derived from two wells, one of which is 216 and 
the other 265 feet deep. About two-thirds of the inhabitants use 
the public water, and about 100,000 gallons of it is consumed daily. 
Winnebago. — At Winnebago the public supply is obtained from 
an 8-inch well, drilled to a depth of 266 feet, in which the water 
stands 6 feet below the surface. Supplementary to the public sup- 
ply, there are along the valley of Blue Earth River many flowing 
wells, the number of which has constantly increased from the settle- 
ment of the county to the present time. These flowing wells have 
always yielded water of a fairly uniform head and volume, being but 
little influenced either by abundant rains or by periods of drought. 
Their head is about 20 feet above the river. The following statement 
is made by Mr. Pierce: 

There are at present flowing wells all along Blue Earth River, the valley of which 
is about 60 to 80 feet lower than the surrounding country. The wells all flow when a 
depth of about 50 feet is reached, and should this vein fail a second one is reached 
at a depth of 75 feet. Several veins of nonrising water are drilled through before 
reaching these flows. The vein yielding the flow is invariably preceded by an 
extremely hard layer of blue clay, a genuine hardpan. The water is always located 
in a bed of coarse sand, which seems to have the same appearance and quality wherever 
penetrated. 

Elmore. — The public supply at Elmore is drawn from a well 110 
feet deep, in which the water stands 8 feet below the surface. An 
analysis of the water from the railway well, which is 177 feet deep, is 
given in the accompanying table. 

Bricelyn. — The public supply of Bricelyn, which is used by about 
three-fourths of the people, is derived from a well 107 feet deep, in 
which the water stands 19 feet below the surface. The private wells 
vary greatly in depth. Many flowing wells have been obtained on the 
lower ground in the valley of Brush Creek, the one nearest Bricelyn 
being a half mile east of the village. Their average depth is about 
75 feet, and they apparently procure their water from a bed of gravel 
that lies upon the Paleozoic of this part of the county. 

Easton. — The public supply at Easton is taken from a well 110 feet 
deep, in which the water stands virtually at the surface. Nearly 

60920°— wsp 256—11 12 



178 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



one-half the people use this supply, the water being furnished free 
of charge. 

Delavan. — The public supply at Delavan is taken from a well 473 
feet deep, and is evidently drawn from the Jordan sandstone. The 
water stands 15 feet below the surface. The Chicago, Milwaukee' 
and St. Paul Railway Company uses a well that obtains its supply 
from a depth of 60 feet. An analysis of this water is given in the 
table. 

Kiester. — In the village of Kiester the public supply is drawn from 
a well 400 feet deep, but most of the inhabitants rely on private wells. 

Minnesota Lake. — The public supply at Minnesota Lake is obtained 
from a drilled well 185 feet deep. Most of the people have private 
wells. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The beds of sand and gravel in the deeper portion of the glacial 
drift afford a convenient and satisfactory source of water supply, and 
a large reserve is stored in the underlying rock formations, especially 
in the St. Peter, Jordan, and Dresbach sandstones. The section of 
the deep well at Blue Earth given above will serve to show the 
position ami approximate thickness of these formations. The water 
from the lower beds will not rise higher than that from the glacial 
drift, ami deep drilling for flowing wells is therefore not advised. 

Mineral analyses of trater in Faribault ( 'ounty. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Glacial drift. 



Mix- 
ture. 



Paleozoic. 



Depth feet.. 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 
(Na+lO 

Bicarbonate radicle 
(HCOs) 

Sulphate radicle (SOO- 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



Ill 
37 

34 

404 
91 
1.5 
520 



90 

33 

11 

431 
30 
1.5 
3S6 



96 
35 

15 

461 

43 
1.0 
426 



323 
47 



496 



102 

3S 



4.1 
462 



82 

29 

112 

547 
110 

6.0 
615 



266 
and 
150 
16S 
53 

97 

402 
491 
5.9 
1083 



■ 266 

1S4 
55 

51 

398 
451 

4.0 
944 



265 

SI 
29 

95 

522 
91 
2.9 
558 



1 . 240 

179 
50 

9S 

412 
476 
6.6 
1.044 



177 

96 
31 

67 

435 
146 

4.5 
603 



1. Railway well at Delavan. October 13, 1SSS. 

2. Railway well at Huntley. October 10, 1SSS. 

3. Railway well at Hunt lev. October 12. 1892. 

4. Railway well at Huntley. December 27. 1899. 

:>. Railway well at Huntley (new source). September IS, 1901. 

6. Railway well at Wells. 1892. 

7. Mixture of water from the village and railway wells at Winnebago, 266 and 150 feet deep, respectively. 
April 8. 18s>;>. 

8. Village well at Winnebago. April 8, 1S95. 

9. Village well at Wells. February 19, 1S96. 

10. City well at Blue Earth. 1S99. 

11. Railway well at Elmore. 

Analyses 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, aud 9 were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. 
Paul Railway Company. Analyses 7, 10. and 11 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and 
Northwestern Railway Company. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 179 

FILLMORE COUNTY. 
By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Fillmore County lies on what was originally a broad plateau. In 
the western and southern portions of the county the plateau character 
is still preserved, but in the northern and eastern parts the surface is 
very rugged, consisting of deep, sharp valleys separated by ridges 
with flat or gently rolling crests, the latter representing remnants of 
the original surface. The elevation of the plateau in the western half 
of the county is more than 1,300 feet above sea level, but to the east 
it descends to 1,250 feet, or about 550 to 600 feet above the Mississippi. 
In the western part of the county, where the plateau has not been dis- 
sected, it is fairly level, the flatness being due in part to the mantle of 
glacial drift that rests "upon it. Farther east there is little or no drift, 
but the upland surface is covered by a thin mantle of yellowish silt or 
loess, which, though it somewhat masks the inequalities of the rock 
surface, does not completely hide them, leaving a rather rolling sur- 
face. In the areas underlain by the Galena limestone and Decorah 
shale occasional basins or sink holes as well as mounds and low hills of 
the limestone occur. 

The principal valleys are those carved by Root River and its tribu- 
taries. In the harder rocks the valleys are narrow and canyon-like, 
but those in the softer rocks reach a width of a mile in places and con- 
tain extensive deposits of alluvium. The streams generally flow in 
rapids where they cross from harder to softer rocks, the change also 
being marked by terraces along the sides of the valleys. In some 
places bluffs and picturesque pinnacles border the valleys. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The surface deposits include alluvium, loess, and glacial drift. 
The alluvium of Fillmore County includes the gravels and sands 
deposited by Root River and its tributaries. The thickness of these 
deposits in some places is not known, but perhaps reaches 50. feet or 
more, the average probably being between 25 and 30 feet. They 
contain considerable water and usually yield ample supplies for 
domestic and farm purposes. The loess is a fine yellow loamy silt 
deposited over the uplands to a depth rarely exceeding 10 feet. It is 
unimportant as a water-bearing bed, but is of value owing to the fact 
that it collects rainfall and feeds it to the underlying rock. 

The glacial drift of Fillmore County consists chiefly of clay mixed 
with pebbles and bowlders, but locally it contains gravel and sand 
layers and in some places deposits of peat. It is found mainly in the 
western third of the county, where its greatest thickness is 100 feet. 



180 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

In the eastern part it is very thin, in many places occurring onl} 7 in 
scattered patches. No water is found in these thin isolated deposits, 
but in the sand and gravel layers of the thick accumulations quan- 
tities sufficient for farm and domestic purposes occur. Certain dark 
clays, about 20 feet thick and underlain by several feet of water- 
bearing sandstone, have been thought to be Cretaceous, but there is 
little ground for this assumption. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Devonian rocks in Fillmore County consist of thin-bedded, 
even-grained, granular, yellow magnesian ami arenaceous limestones. 
They outcrop on the hilltops in the southwestern townships and have 
a total thickness of about 100 feet. They afford a small supply of 
water to shallow wells and give rise to occasional springs. 

The Maquoketa shale consists of calcareous and sandy shales aggre- 
gating about 80 feet in thickness. It outcrops along a - northwest- 
southeast line from a point near Hamilton on the western to Granger 
on the southern boundary. Because of their impervious character 
the shales contain practically no water, but intercept the water 
seeping through the overlying Devonian and residuary material, 
forming an important spring horizon. 

The Galena limestone, Decorah shale, and Platteville limestone 
outcrop in a number of bluffs bordering the headwaters of Root 
River. On the uplands the Galena limestone yields moderate quan- 
tities of water, but near the valley edges the water is largely lost by 
leakage. The supplies from the Platteville limestone are very small, 
as the water either escapes into the adjacent valleys where the forma- 
tion outcrops or sinks into the underlying St. Peter sandstone. 

The St. Peter sandstone outcrops in the upper parts of the bluffs 
bordering the principal streams and constitutes the surface rock on 
the upland areas in the eastern third of the county. It yields large 
supplies except near the valleys, where leakage has removed most of 
the water. 

The Shakopee dolomite is about 75 feet thick and is exposed in 
the bluffs bordering the principal streams in the eastern half of the 
county. Where it lies beneath the St. Peter sandstone it seems to 
hold up the water in that formation and makes shallow wells pos- 
sible. It carries some water in its bedding planes and sandy layers, 
but rarely affords supplies to wells. It gives rise to some springs 
along the valleys. 

The New Richmond sandstone is from 25 to 40 feet thick and out- 
crops in the principal valleys. It is not an important source of 
water supply. 

The Oneota dolomite is essentially a magnesian limestone, but in 
this county carries some green sand and occasionally shaly layers. 



FILLMORE COUNTY. 181 

It is about 200 feet thick and is exposed in the valleys of Root River 
and its tributaries. It carries less water than the alluvium of the 
valleys and less than the overlying New Richmond. In itself it is 
not to be regarded as a source of water supply. 

The Jordan sandstone is about 100 feet thick. It outcrops in 
the Root River valley as far upstream as Lanesboro and also along 
several tributaries of this stream in the eastern portion of the county. 
Along its exposures in the valleys the supplies of water that it yields 
are usually small, but to the west where it passes under the uplands 
it carries large amounts of water and is the strongest water-bearing 
bed encountered. Here the water must, however, be raised several 
hundred feet to bring it to the surface. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of about 175 feet of lime- 
stones, shales, and sandy beds, of which about 75 feet are exposed 
in the bottom of the Root River valley below Peterson. It carries 
a little water in the sandy beds, but because everywhere except in 
the valley mentioned it is overlain by the Jordan, which is a much 
stronger water bearer, it is of little importance as a source of supply. 

The Dresbach sandstone occurs about 125 feet below Root River 
at the eastern boundary of the county. It is an open porous sand- 
stone, saturated with water under considerable pressure, and yields 
supplies that rise nearly or quite to the surface of the river bottoms. 
In the valleys and near the edge of the uplands this sandstone affords 
the best source of water, but where it is deep below the surface, as in 
the western part of the county, there is no advantage in sinking to it, 
as equally satisfactory supplies can be obtained from the Jordan at 
a considerably less depth. 

Beneath the Dresbach sandstone are shales that carry little or no 
water. Below these shales is a sandstone that affords large volumes 
of water, but perhaps no more than the Dresbach sandstone, although 
it is under somewhat greater head. At still greater depths is the 
red clastic series, resting in turn on a granite foundation. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Head of the water. — Flowing wells are obtained in the valleys of 
Root River and its affluents as far upstream as Rushford. The 
water comes from the Dresbach and underlying sandstones and rises 
to 730 feet above sea level. It will not, however, rise to the surface 
in the upper parts of the valley, and on the uplands stands several 
hundred feet below the surface. Even in the highest portions of 
the county, the water from shallow horizons underlain by impervious 
formations may stand near the surface. The head of the drift 
wells varies with their position, depending on the altitude of the sur- 
rounding morainic masses and outwash plains. There are several 
flowing wells in T. 101 N., R. 13 W., near the state line, and others 
occur along upper Iowa River in Iowa. 



182 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Quality of the water. — The water of the county is all moderately 
hard. It contains considerable quantities of calcium and mag- 
nesium and the bicarbonate radicle, but is not otherwise highly 
mineralized. See the analyses given in the accompanying table. 

Wells: — The wells of Fillmore County may be divided into several 
groups, the most important of which are (1) the shallow wells in 
glacial drift, (2) the shallow wells in alluvium, (3) the nonflowing 
rock wells, and (4) the flowing rock wells. The drift is not commonly 
a source of water except near the western border of the county, 
where it is 50 to 75 feet thick or more in places and usually carries 
considerable water at a level within easy reach of shallow open wells. 
Eastward across the county the drift decreases rapidly in thickness 
and yields but little water, so that it is necessary for wells to enter a 
rock formation. Except near the edge of the uplands, satisfactory 
supplies can be obtained at depths of 100 to 150 feet. Near the 
deepest valleys, however, the water is free to escape from the bluffs, 
and many of the upland wells must penetrate to depths of several 
hundred feet. It is not unusual for wells near the bluffs to go 250 to 
350 feet for their supplies, and in some of them water is not obtained 
until the level of the valley bottom is reached. In general the wells 
on the south side of the valleys are deeper than those on the north 
side, because of the southward dip of the rocks. In the deep valleys 
many farm and village wells obtain their supplies from the alluvium 
at very shallow depths, but more satisfactory wells are procured in 
the valleys by drilling into the underlying sandstones, which are 
reached at moderate depths and from which the water rises nearly 
or quite to the surface. 

Springs. — In the deep valleys everywhere cut into the rock in the 
eastern portion of the county the water is free to escape and issues 
in numerous springs, some of them very large. These springs occur 
along lines that mark the upper surface of impervious shales and 
limestones. Many of the streams fed by such springs are capable 
of affording water power, and some of them are sources of supply 
for public waterworks. The strongest springs are said to be on the 
north side of the east-west valleys, the emergence of the water being 
facilitated by the southward dip of the rock. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Lanesboro. — The village of Lanesboro obtains much of its supply 
from large springs issuing from the New Richmond sandstone and 
possibly from the Oneota dolomite and Jordan sandstone. The 
spring known locally as the City Spring is inclosed to form a cement- 
lined cistern about 15 by 30 feet in size, from which the water is 
pumped by an electric motor into the village system. Although 
only about 27,000 gallons is consumed daily, the spring is said to be 



FILLMORE COUNTY. 183 

capable of yielding four times that amount. Analyses of the water are 
given in the tables (Nos. 4 and 5) . There is a large spring in the park 
near the village, the water of which apparently comes from the Jordan; 
another \\ miles south of the village is one of the largest springs in 
this locality and was formerly used for water power. These springs 
are interesting geologically as well as economically, because they 
indicate that large streams flow through deep-lying Paleozoic rocks. 
The drainage of the region is sufficient to produce such underground 
erosion that long cavernous passages have been carved out of the 
limestone. Where these springs are used for drinking supplies, the 
source should be sought out and guarded against pollution. 

Spring Valley. — The public supply at Spring Valley was at first ob- 
tained from springs issuing from the limestones and shales. This 
source soon became inadequate and the present supply is derived 
chiefly from a well 40 feet in diameter, sunk into the limestone and 
shale 18 feet below the surface. 

Preston. — One of the most notable springs of the county is that 
furnishing the Preston public supply. It issues from bedding planes 
at the base of the New Richmond sandstone and the top of the Oneota 
dolomite. It is only 2 feet above the level of the river and was 
formerly subject to overflow, but is now protected by cement walls. 
The water is collected in a cement cistern built down to the rock. 
The yield is said to be 250 gallons a minute, of which only about 30 
gallons is required for the public supply. The flow is constant and 
independent of seasons. The water has but little permanent hard- 
ness and will not form much scale if heated before being admitted to 
boilers. Two analyses are given in the table. 

Rushford. — The first public supply for Rushford was installed 
about 1887, the water being obtained from a well sunk on the side of 
the bluff above the village. This well was used for a number of years, 
but, because of the expense of pumping, a new well 553 feet deep 
was sunk in 1901 on low ground in the center of the village, and flow- 
ing water was obtained. The flow shows certain puzzling fluctua- 
tions. When the barometric pressure is low, and usually in the 
spring, it discharges out of a pipe 1§ feet above the ground, but at 
other times the flow stops. The changes are irregular, however, and 
may have some other cause besides variations in barometric pressure. 

Chatfteld. — The village of Chatfield, which extends into Olmsted 
County, has a system of public waterworks deriving its supplies from 
wells sunk to the Jordan sandstone. Private wells drilled to depths 
of 65 to 100 feet procure an adequate supply. 

Harmony. — The public supply at Harmony comes from a well 
220 feet deep, which ends in the St. Peter sandstone. The water 
is reported to stand 130 feet below the surface. It is used largely 
for domestic purposes. 

Wylcoff. — The public supply at Wykoff is derived from a well 600 
feet deep, which has been pumped at the rate of 180 gallons a minute. 



184 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



The water is reported to stand 300 feet below the surface. It is used 
by most of the people for domestic purposes. 

Fountain. — The first deep well in the vicinity of Fountain is said 
to have been sunk by William Herman. Its success showed the 
possibilities of deep wells, and accordingly others were drilled by 
private persons and by the municipality. The first village well was 
originally 6 inches in diameter and 376 feet deep, but later it was 
sunk to a depth of 585 feet and now obtains a good supply, the water 
rising within 340 feet of the surface. A street well was sunk to a 
depth of 376 feet and was pumped by a windmill and later by a gaso- 
line engine, but it finally failed. A new village well, sunk in 1906 to 
a depth of 608 feet, obtains water at depths of 90 feet and 370 feet 
and at the bottom. The records of the two deep wells are as follows: 

Section of the village wells at Fountain. 
[Authorities: Old well, W. G. Banks: new well, O. H. Case.] 





Old well. 


New well. 




Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 




Feet. 
20 

155 
45 
30 


Feet. 
20 

175 
220 
250 


Feet. 
10 

160 


Feet. 
10 


Galena, Decorah, and Platteville: 


170 












30 200 


St. Peter sandstone 


90 
30 
40 

ISO 


340 
370 
410 
590 


90 290 




85 375 


New Richmond sandstone 


35 410 
190 


Jordan sandstone (entered). 







The large springs from which Fountain derives its name are a mile 
or more northwest of the village and issue at a level 147 feet lower 
than the general level of the village. The water comes in large 
volume from solution crevices in the limestone immediately above 
the shales (see the above sections). At one time it was lifted by a 
ram to the village, but the springs were abandoned because of the 
muddiness of the water after storms, evidently due to the earth 
entering the underground passages through the sinks in the vicinity. 
Since these sink holes are often made the receptacles of refuse, 
the waters are liable to pollution, and the village did well to abandon 
its supply. 

Mabel.^-The public supply at Mabel is here drawn from a well 140 
feet deep, in which the water rises within 40 feet of the surface. A 
majority of the people use private wells. 

Canton. — In the village of Canton there is a well 240 feet deep. 
The stock yards are supplied from a well reported to be 318 feet deep. 
These wells apparently derive their water from the New Richmond 
and Jordan sandstones, respectively. 



FILLMORE COUNTY. 



185 



SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The most reliable supplies in Fillmore County are derived from the 
deep sandstone formations. The water from these beds stands at a 
level far below the upland surface, but rises nearly to the level of the 
deepest valleys and near Rushford produces flows. Many satisfac- 
tory wells for farm and domestic supplies are obtained from the sur- 
face deposits and from the rock formations near the surface. These 
wells have an advantage over those going to the deep sandstones 
both in depth and in head. The waters from all the horizons utilized 
are similar in chemical composition. They contain rather large 
amounts of calcium and magnesium and the bicarbonate radicle, 
but little other mineral matter. 

Mineral analyses of water in Fillmore County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Root River. 



Springs. 



Depth feet. 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+Kj 

Bicarbonate radicle ( HC03) 

Sulphate radicle (SO-0 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



20 
6.5 
290 
7.2 
.0 
242 



74 

21 

7.5 

334 

10 

1.0 

278 



62 

20 

9.5 

303 

8 

1.6 
257 



83 
26 
10 
385 
16 

326 



73 
24 
3. 

318 
16 
24 

286 



60 
21 
4.5 
251 

93 

2 
248 



78 
25 
11 
240 
38 



79 
18 
4.1 
314 
8.1 
25 
286 



St. Peter and New Richmond sandstones. 



15. 



16. 



18. 



Jordan 
sandstone. 



Depth feet. 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K). 

Bicarbonate radicle 

(HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



476 
47 



456 



341 
26 
67 

312 



310 



280 

10 

3 

241 



60 



7.1 



304 
28 



295 



190 
90 
32 

12 

460 
5.9 
4.5 

389 



318 
88 
30 



415 
6.5 
9.1 

352 



389 
79 
24 

6.5 

350 
20 

1.2 
305 



585 
'82 
33 

3.8 

342 
23 

1.1 
301 



600 
76 
23 



334 

22 

4 

296 



1. Water from Root River at Lanesboro. October, 1892. 

2. Water from Root River at Lanesboro. 1903. 

3. Water from Root River at Preston. October, 1892. 

4. Spring at Lanesboro. August, 1903. 

5. Spring at Lanesboro. December, 1906. 

6. Spring at Spring Valley. October, 1906. 

7. Spring at Preston. December, 1899. 

8. Spring at Preston. 1906. 

9. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Rushford. November, 1892. 

10. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Spring Valley. August, 1888. 

11 . Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Spring Valley. December, 1899. 

12. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Mabel. January, 1889. 

13. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Preston. Sept. 1892. 

14. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Mabel. September, 1892. 

15. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Canton. September, 1892. 

16. Village well at Haimony. January, 1889. 

17. Well at the stock yards in Canton. December, 1888. 

18. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Fountain. December, 1895. 

19. Village well at Fountain. December, 1890. 

20. Village well at Fountain. February, 1907. 

Analyses 5, 6, and 8 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. S. Spaulding; all the 
others were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 



186 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

FREEBORN COUNTY. 
By C. W. II aii. and M. L. Fxn i er. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Five bo rn County lies upon the plateau that forms the southeastern 
portion o( the State. Its topography is very simple. The extremes 
of altitude are between about 1,150 feet above sea level in the north- 
western corner ami about 1,350 feet on the morainic summits in the 
central portion. Its average altitude is not less than 1,250 feet. 
Two well-defined belts o( morainic mounds extend from north to 
south across the county, one of them through the eastern part ami the 
other ami larger belt through the west-central part. Owing - to the 
irregular surface caused by the deposition of these belts, a number of 
lakes have been formed which lie in the depressions ami mark the 
ground-water level in this part of the county. Along the eastern ami 
western borders ami on the smooth stretch between the morainic 
districts the land is relatively level and has an altitude between 1,150 
and 1,250 feet, with very little variation. 

The streams which carry off the surface drainage of the county flow 
partly southward across Iowa to Mississippi River ami partly north- 
westward across Faribault ami "Waseca counties into Minnesota 
River. The west-central morainic belt forms the divide that sepa- 
rates these waters. There are no streams of considerable size within 
the county ami many hundred square miles show no definite drainage 
valley. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The glacial drift varies from 75 to more than 200 feet in thickness. 
Along the eastern bonier of the county wells indicate a thickness 
of 100 feet, which increases gradually westward ami northward to 
more than 200 feet, the last-named thickness being reported near 
Hartland ami near Clarks Grove. The two broad north-south 
morainic belts are composed of diversified material, including very 
characteristic drift masses of bowldery gravel and sand, extensive 
stretches of stratified gravels and sands, and not uncommonly an 
excellent brick clay, quite free from the bowlders so common in the 
ordinary drift. Water abounds in these morainic accumulations, but 
owing to the diversified character of the material the supply is far 
from uniform. 

Modified drift constitutes the surficial deposit of the level tracts 
between the morainic ridges. The stratified character of this mate- 
rial is frequently seen in the dug wells, which are 10 to 50 feet deep. 
Much of the material is in the form of a lake deposit, but doubtless it 
was mostly formed as an out wash from the melting ice and accumu- 
lating moraines. 



FREEBORN COUNTY. 18*7 

CRETACEOUS DEPOSITS (?). 

The presence of Cretaceous rocks has repeatedly been announced 
for Freeborn County , a but a review of the records shown by the wells 
reported fails to make clear the presence of deposits of this period. 
Fragments of "coal" or wood in advanced stages of transformation 
to coal have frequently been dug up, but nowhere has there been 
reported a deposit that may positively be referred to Cretaceous age. 
In Blue Earth and other counties, particularly Chisago, interglacial 
peat beds have been discovered ; fragments of wood may come from 
these, and the fragments of lignite or "coal" may easily have been 
brought in the glacial drift from the counties lying farther west, 
where such deposits are known to occur. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The limestone referred to the Devonian is an extension westward 
of the formation seen at the surface at and near Austin. It occurs 
beneath about one-half of the county, with its greatest thickness in 
the southeastern corner. Associated with it is a belt of water- 
bearing sandstone which may also belong to the Devonian or may 
prove to be an arenaceous layer of the earlier period represented by 
the Galena, Decorah, and Platteville formations. Good supplies of 
water have been drawn from this limestone through a number of wells 
drilled into it in the southeastern part of the county. 

Beneath the drift in the northwestern quarter of the county occurs 
the buff magnesian Galena limestone, underlain by a thin bed of 
Decorah shale and 25 or 30 feet of Platteville limestone. The total 
thickness of these formations, as indicated by the Freeborn well, 
appears to be more than 300 feet. Little or no water is found in the 
shale, but in general the limestones will yield enough for domestic 
and farm purposes and occasionally, where the upper surface is 
broken and fissured, enough for industrial and small public supplies. 

The St. Peter sandstone underlies the Platteville limestone through- 
out the county and is generally 600 to 700 feet below the surface. Its 
thickness is believed to be about 140 feet, and it is usually saturated 
with water under considerable pressure, the supplies entering the wells 
freely and affording quantities usually sufficient for all purposes. 

Beneath the St. Peter sandstone is a succession of limestones, sand- 
stones, and shales, reaching a depth of many hundred feet. All the 
sandstones, except those of the red clastic series, contain large amounts 
of water which would be yielded to deep wells penetrating them. In 
general, however, the supplies are no greater than those from the St. 
Peter, and hence there has beenusuallyno advantage in sinking to them. 

a Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1874; Final Rept., vol. 1, 1882, pp. 382-385, etc 



1SS UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

l T Nl>F.KOKOVNO WATEK CONDITIONS. 

Wells. —Owing io the fact that the entire surface of the county is 
covered with drift, rarely loss than LOO and at many points more than 
200 feet thick, by far the greater number of the wells obtain their 
supplies from this material, though many have also been sunk io the 
underlying rock formations. The wells may be grouped in four 
general classes — P shallow wells in glacial drift, (2) deeper wells in 
drift. (3) wells sunk to the glacial-subglacial contact /one. and (4) 
wells entering the Paleozoic rocks. 

The wells of the first class seldom exceed 30 feet in depth ami 
obtain their water from thin, gravelly layers in the upper portion of 
the drift. The water at this horizon is more liable io pollution from 
the surface seepage than any of the deeper supplies, and it often fails 
in dry seasons. For both these reasons this source of water is gen- 
erally less desirable than the deeper formations. 

Most wells of the second class are 25 to 75 feet deep ami penetrate 
a considerable thickness o( yellow and blue drift. They obtain their 
supplies from interbedded gravelly layers at varying depths. Being 
of the tightly cased tubular type and carried through impervious 
clays, these wells generally are freer from danger of contamination 
than those in the first class. The water is commonly harder but more, 
palatable than that of the shallow wells. In some places, however, 
where much ancient and slowly decomposing organic material 
occurs in the drift, the waters may taste strongly of iron and sulphur 
derived from the lignite, black clay, etc. 

The third class of wells — those entering the materials of difficult 
stratigraphic assignment between the drift ami the underlying hard 
rock — commonly obtain abundant water. The supply is. however, 
very often of the ferruginous or sulphurous character described 
above. Not uncommonly wells sunk into the upper layers of the 
Paleozoic limestones gather their waters from this contact zone. In 
such wells the limestone serves as a reservoir for collecting supplies. 

Most of the wells of the fourth class obtain their water from the 
formations lying only a short distance below the glacial drift. Thus 
near the northeastern corner a number are supplied from the Devonian 
sandstone. But the deeper wells pass through the upper formations 
and reach the St. Peter or sandstones at still lower levels. 

Flowing areas. — Flowing wells are found in the lowlands about 
Geneva. Albert Pea. and Glenville, in Riceland Township, and else- 
where. The water is obtained in part from the base of the drift and 
in part from the upper portion of the underlying Paleozoic formations. 
The head appears to come from the adjacent moraines. 

Springs. — The surface of Freeborn County is in general undissected 
and springs are accordingly scarce. Nevertheless, a considerable num- 
ber of small springs issue along the streams and at the foot of the 
morainal hills, where they are used for stock purposes. 



FREEBORN COUNTY. 



189 



WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Albert Lea. — The public supply at Albert Lea is used by approxi- 
mately one-half the people, and it is estimated that 200,000 gallons of 
water are consumed daily. The supply is obtained from two drilled 
wells. One is 448 feet deep and ends in the Galena; the other is 660 
feet deep and reaches the St. Peter sandstone. The water is under 
sufficient head to rise to the surface, and the maximum yield is very 
large. It is reported that the wells under test have yielded at the 
rate of 1,000 gallons a minute. 

Al/len. — The well that furnishes the public supply at Alden is j!15 
feet deep and ends in the Galena. About one-fourth of the people 
use the water from this well, and nearly '20,000 gallons are consumed 
daily. 

Hartland. — The public waterworks in the village of Ilartland are 
supplied from a well that ends in the Galena limestone at a depth of 
about 300 feet. 

Emmons. — The waterworks at Emmons are supplied by a drilled 
well 160 feet deep. Virtually all the people depend on private wells. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The glacial drift furnishes the most accessible and largely utilized 
source of water supply in Freeborn County. Several strong water- 
bearing beds, however, lie at greater depths and afford a large reserve 
that can be tapped by deep wells anywhere within the limits of the 
county. 

Mineral analyses of 'water in Freeborn County. 

[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (N'a+K;. 

Bicarbonate radicle < I [CO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



.feet. 



Glacial drift. 



1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


14 


18 


20 


m> 


643 


151 


98 


110 


100 


99 


42 


26 


33 


30 


30 


19 


33 


Hi 


22 


12 


398 


445 


394 


496 


455 


164 


52 


98 


18 


27 


65 




25 


1.5 




639 


435 


481 i 


423 





St. Peter sand- 
stone. 



1. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Albert Lea. 1897. 

2. Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway well at Albert Lea. 

3. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Albert Lea (former sunply;. 

4. City well at Albert Lea. 1892. 

5. Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad well at Albert Lea. 1903. 



1892. 



190 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

GOODHUE COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Like other counties bordering on Mississippi River Goodhue 
County has a surface consisting of relatively level upland tracts 
separated by the deep valleys of the numerous tributaries of that 
stream. These upland areas, which are a part of a once continuous 
plateau, range in elevation from 1,000 feet above sea level in the 
north to 1,100 feet in the center, and 1,150 feet in the south, where 
they stand 450 feet or more above the Mississippi. They preserve 
the flat or gently rolling aspect characteristic of the original plateau 
surface, and are also marked here and there by sudden variations of 
level where the rocks change in hardness. The highest elevations 
are in the areas of the harder and more resistant Galena and Platte- 
ville limestones. The irregularities of the uplands are subdued in 
the east by a coating of loess, and in the west by the glacial drift. 

The county is crossed in its northern part by Cannon River. The 
bed of this stream is 250 to 300 feet below the uplands. Along the 
south side of the county the north branch of Zumbro River has 
eroded a channel 100 to 150 feet deep. Besides these there are 
numerous short tributaries of the Mississippi occupying ravines or 
valleys, which in their lower portions may be so much as 400 feet 
below the adjacent uplands. Except a few of these ravines, the 
valleys of Goodhue County are not canyon-like, and the streams are 
so numerous that the upland tracts are generally small. 

Along Cannon River, and also along the Mississippi, both above 
and below the mouth of the Cannon, are found series of terraces, 
some of which are of considerable extent. They represent the action 
of the waters from the glaciers that once occupied the region and 
bear evidence of some interesting features in the glacial and post- 
glacial history of the State. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The surface deposits of Goodhue County include alluvium, terrace 
gravels, loess, and glacial drift. 

The alluvium, consisting of stratified, loamy gravel, sand, and 
silt deposited by the streams, has an unknown thickness, but prob- 
ably is at most 150 feet thick. Considerable amounts of water, 
derived from rainfall, from downward percolation from the streams, 
and from leakage from the hillsides, occur in the pores of the deposit 
and are available to wells of moderate depth in amounts sufficient 
for domestic, farm, or small industrial purposes. Along Mississippi 
River within this county are some of the most notable alluvial beds 
the State affords. 



GOODHUE COUNTY. 191 

Owing to recent erosion by the streams their ancient flood plains 
are now seen only as narrow shelves or terraces. Water is readily 
absorbed by the gravels and the sands of these terraces, but because 
of their exposed position this water is quickly drained away; hence 
the terraces are not generally satisfactory sources of supply unless 
the wells penetrate to a point below the level of the adjacent streams. 

The loess is a yellow unstratified silt reaching 15 feet or more in 
thickness. It is found mainly on the flat-crested ridges between 
tke streams, being elsewhere largely removed by subsequent erosion. 
Owing to the thinness of the deposit it is seldom a source of water 
supply, but is important because it absorbs quickly the water falling 
on its surface and feeds it to the underlying rock. 

The glacial drift of Goodhue County is in some places 50 to 100 
feet thick and is predominantly of the clayey type, weathered to a 
yellow color for 10 to 20 feet below the surface. Locally it is some- 
what gravelly, especially at its base, thus affording good facilities 
for the storage of water. The drift-covered area occupies a strip 
several miles long from the northern point of the county southwest- 
ward to a point south of Dennison, where its boundary turns south- 
eastward, passing near Zumbrota and Pine Island. 

Much discussion has been aroused by certain beds of clay found in 
the central portion of Goodhue County, the best-known exposure of 
which is in T. 112 N., R. 15 W. It is a fine blue clay of uniform 
texture and of so excellent a quality that it is used in a large manu- 
factory of tile and earthenware at Red Wing. It has all the char- 
acters of the Cretaceous as known in identified localities and has 
accordingly been considered to be of Cretaceous age. Inspection of 
the beds, made possible by quarrying operations, has shown, however, 
that glacial gravels lie beneath the clay, and this situation leads to 
the conviction that the material, though derived from Cretaceous 
beds elsewhere, is stratigraphically a mass of glacial drift. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

. Rocks are exposed in the bluffs along Mississippi River and its 
larger tributaries in practically continuous outcrops across the 
county. On the crest of the ridges between the streams, however, 
rock rarely shows at the surface because of the mantle of loess. 
Farther west the rock formations are still more deeply buried by 
glacial drift. 

The Galena, Decorah, and Platteville formations, with a thickness 
varying from 50 to 75 feet, occur beneath the highest lands in the 
southwestern part of the county, but are of little value as a source of 
water. 

oSardeson, F. W., The so-called Cretaceous deposits in southeastern Minnesota: Jour. Geology, vol. 6, 
1898, pp. 679-691. 



192 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The St. Peter sandstone is about 150 feet thick and outcrops along 
the rim of the uplands bordering the Cannon and Mississippi river 
valleys. In the eastern part of the county it underlies the upland 
flats between the streams, from which it passes beneath the glacial 
deposits to the west, appearing at the surface only in deep valleys. 
Where deeply buried it carries considerable water and affords good 
supplies to wells that pass through the overlying drift and limestone, 
but along its outcrops its supplies are much smaller, owing to the 
escape of the water into the adjacent valleys. 

The Shakopee dolomite, which is about 25 to 40 feet thick, out- 
crops along the edge of the bluffs of Cannon and Mississippi rivers 
and their tributaries. Its contact with the overlying St. Peter 
affords a notable spring line. Certain sandy layers afford a little 
water, but its significance is in its relation to the two sandstones 
between which it lies. 

The New Richmond sandstone is about 30 feet thick and outcrops 
between the Shakopee and Oneota dolomites in the river bluffs. It 
carries considerable water and at some distance from the valleys may 
furnish supplementary supplies of importance. Beneath the drift 
area, however, it is of slight importance as a water bearer, because 
the St. Peter, which also is here under cover, furnishes more copious 
supplies. 

The Oneota dolomite is similar to the Shakopee in all its rock char- 
acters but reaches a thickness of 150 feet in its outcrops along Missis- 
sippi and Cannon rivers. It carries some water in joints and bedding 
planes, but the yield is much less than from the overlying New 
Richmond sandstone, and hence it is of little importance as a source 
of supplies. Wells starting in the Oneota should be carried through 
it to the Jordan sandstone. 

The Jordan sandstone is about 90 feet thick, outcropping in the 
lower bluffs of the deepest valleys in the eastern part of the county. 
From its outcrop it dips slightly southwestward, underlying the 
entire county in that direction. Near its outcrop it will furnish only 
small supplies, but on the uplands, at a distance from the valleys, it 
will yield large supplies of good quality to deep wells. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of shale and dolomite with 
some sandstone and green sand, the whole having a thickness of 
about 140 feet. It occurs in the lower portions of the bluffs and 
beneath the alluvium of the Mississippi Valley and its large tribu- 
taries. It carries a little water, especially in its sandy layers, but 
because of the compact texture of the formation as a whole the vol- 
ume is much less, than in the overlying Jordan or in the underlying 
Dresbach sandstone, and hence it is rarely to be considered as a 
source of supply. 



GOODHUE COUNTY. 193 

The Dresbach is a white to gray mica-bearing sandstone with some 
shale. It is about 85 feet thick and lies entirely below the level of 
Mississippi River. It carries large amounts of water in its porous, 
sandy layers, and its supplies are available to deep wells at all points 
in the county. The water is under considerable artesian pressure 
and will rise to the level of the Mississippi flood plain or slightly 
higher. 

The shales which underlie the Dresbach sandstone are present 
throughout the county and will yield large supplies of water. In the 
Mississippi River valley the water is usually under sufficient head to 
flow at the surface. Beneath these shales occurs the red clastic 
series, consisting of a succession of red sandstones, quartzites, and 
shales, the total thickness of which varies more than that of any 
stratified formation of southeastern Minnesota. This variation is 
probably due to the uneven granite surface upon which the rocks 
were laid. Experience has shown that when these red rocks are 
reached little additional water may be expected, and the water which 
they do contain is very hard and rich in sodium chloride. 

Granite has been reported at Red Wing at a depth of a little more 
than 200 feet, but this report has not been verified. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Head of the water. — In the southwestern portion of the county the 
water stands but little below the upland surface, many shallow wells 
being only 15 to 30 feet deep, but toward Mississippi and Cannon 
rivers the ground- water table gradually drops and adjusts itself to 
the drainage level of the deep valleys. 

Along the entire length of Mississippi and Cannon rivers and many 
tributary streams in this county flows of good volume are obtained 
from the Dresbach sandstone. This artesian supply has been util- 
ized constantly since 1881, and the demands upon it have steadily 
increased, not only in Red Wing but at various places throughout 
the length of the valley; as a result the flow has been slowly dimin- 
ishing. 

Quality of the water. — So far as has been determined by the inves- 
tigation the water from all horizons is hard but wholesome. The 
water from the red clastic series is especially hard and high in chlo- 
rine content. 

Springs. — Numerous springs occur along the contact zone of the 
several Paleozoic formations and afford copious supplies of whole- 
some water for dairying and locally for power. These springs flow 
from different horizons in different parts of the county. In the high 
area near the southwestern corner the top of the Galena limestone 
60920°— wsp 256—11 13 



194 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

affords an excellent base along which the water makes its way 
within the glacial drift, loess, and residuary material that together 
make up the surface covering. The top of the Shakopee affords 
another horizon of springs where the supplies are collected from the 
extensive St. Peter sandstone. From the highest exposures of the 
Shakopee to the lowest Oneota there are no well-defined spring hori- 
zons, but at the bottom of the Jordan sandstone there is another 
spring zone of notable proportions, the underlying shaly beds of the 
St. Lawrence formation giving the necessary floor along which the 
waters of the sandstone creep to the valleys. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Red Wing. — The lower portion of the city of Red Wing is built on 
the Mississippi flood plain, which is more than a mile in greatest 
width. The water supply from the alluvium is copious, but because 
of seepage from higher ground it has become so contaminated that it 
is unsafe for human use. The underlying rock, which yields large 
supplies of water, is reached at depths varying up to 130 feet. 

At Red Wing and in its immediate vicinity the artesian zones are 
heavily drawn upon. The first flowing well was drilled for the 
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. It reached a 
depth of 500 feet, passing through the shales of the St. Lawrence 
formation, the Dresbach sandstone, and underlying shales, and pene- 
trating the red rock. Water rose under a pressure of 40 pounds per 
square inch at the surface and maintained an excellent supply until 
the casing became corroded and the well clogged. A second well 
drilled for the railway company yielded equally good supplies. 
Among other firms utilizing artesian waters are the following: Sim- 
mons Milling Company, G. A. Carlson, Lagrange Milling Company, 
Red Wing Malting Company, Minnesota Malting Company, Red 
Wing Brewing Company, Minnesota Stoneware Company, Red Wing 
Gas Company, and Chicago Great Western Railway Company. 
There are also two flowing wells at the State Training School, 2 miles 
from the city. The strongest well at present is probably that of the 
Chicago Great Western Railway Company, the water from which 
rose 28 feet above the surface. The flows of some of the wells have 
been very large. In the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway 
well, for example, W. E. Swan, the driller, reported the original flow 
at 800 gallons a minute and the head at 75 feet above the surface. 
The first flow was struck at 191 feet, and the yield increased until the 
red rock was reached. Formerly the flowing wells were used without 
pumping, but at present some of them are pumped. The diminished 

oWinchell, N. H., Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, pp. 20, 21. 



GOODHUE COUNTY. 



195 



yield is due to local interference from the drilling of many wells in 
the same vicinity and, in some of the older wells, to the corroding of 
the casing. Analyses of the water from several of the flowing wells 
are given in the accompanying table. 

The following record of the strata underlying Red Wing is compiled 
from drillers' notes and data published by the Geological Survey of 
Minnesota : 

General well section at Red Wing. a 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Jordan sandstone b 

St. Lawrence formation: 

Sandy shale , 

Blue shale 

Sandstone 

Blue shale 

Alternating sandstone and limestone. .. 
Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales: 

White sandstone 

Shale and shaly sandstone 

Red shale, etc 

Granite (entered). 



Feet. 
70 

10 
50 
10 
30 
45 

50 

250 

9 



Feet. 



35 
85 
95 
125 
170 

220 
470 
479 



a Winchell, N. H., Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1884, pp. 57-58. 
b This formation and the upper layers of the St. Lawrence occur only in wells located in the upper portion 
of the city. 



The public supply is taken from Mississippi River. Although origi- 
nally intended for fire protection, it has become generally installed 
in the business part of the city for ordinary use. The residence dis- 
tricts still use shallow wells and cisterns to a large extent. Without 
nitration the river water is not fit for domestic supplies because of 
the large communities located upon the banks farther upstream. 
Likewise the water afforded by shallow wells is here, as everywhere, 
soon polluted. In order to have a safe supply, it is necessary to 
utilize deep artesian waters or else install an efficient plant for filter- 
ing the river water. The following table shows the mineral quality 
of the water from the various sources : 



Composition of water at Red Wing. 





Mississippi 
River. 


Shallow 
wells. 


Deep 
wells. 


Hardness: 

Temporary 


6.2 
5.2 


8.7 
5.5 


5.6 




3.3 








11.4 


12.1 


9.2 


Residue: 

Fixed 


147.2 
52.0 


512.8 
180.3 


208 


Volatile 


67.3 








199.2 


693.1 


275.3 



196 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Cannon Falte. — The public supply at Cannon Falls is derived from 
a flowing well which is 270 feet deep and taps the Jordan sandstone. 
The following is the approximate stratigraphic section for the vicinity 
of Cannon Falls : 

General section of deep wells at Cannon Falls. 



Platteville limestone (on tops of surrounding hills"). 

St. Peter sandstone 

Shakopee dolomite 

New Richmond sandstone 

Oneota dolomite 

Jordan sandstone 



Thirk- 
ness. 



Feet. 

■j;. 
150 

36 

8 

150 



Depth. 



Feet. 
25 
175 
210 
218 
368 
448 



Kenyon. — The public supply for the village of Kenyon is obtained 
from a shallow well in the weathered and fissured limestone. The 
first strong water-bearing formation beneath this locality is the St. 
Peter sandstone, which lies immediately under the Platteville lime- 
stone, at a depth of not more than 125 feet. Approximately 200 feet 
below the bottom of the St. Peter the top of the Jordan sandstone, 
the second great water-bearing formation of this region, will be 
reached. 

Zumbrota. — The public supply at Zumbrota is obtained from a well 
210 feet deep. Most of the people use shallow private wells. 

Pine Island. — The public supply at Pine Island is derived from a 
well 156 feet deep, which has been tested at 100 gallons a minute. 
This water is used by about two-thirds of the people of the village. 

Goodhue. — The public supply at Goodhue is derived from a well 10 
inches in diameter and 275 feet deep, which has been tested at 300 
gallons a minute. The water is used by nearly all the people for 
domestic purposes. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Several sandstone formations will yield large and permanent sup- 
plies of moderately hard water in Goodhue Comity. In the deepest 
valleys flows are obtained from the Dresbach sandstone and under- 
lying beds, but on the uplands the water from the lowest horizons 
stands far below the surface. The red clastic series should never be 
penetrated, as it will furnish only meager amounts of highly mineral- 
ized water. 



GOODHUE COUNTY. 



197 



Mineral analyses of water in Goodhue County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Springs. 



St. Peter and New 
Richmond sandstone. 



Jordan sand- 
stone. 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (F2O3+AI2O3) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SCn) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Total solids 



97 
28 
20 
442 
20 




14 



30 
20 

1.7 



40 



8.4 



270 
15 

7 



210 
21 
2.9 



96 
27 
13 
292 
24 
18 



.15 

79 

27 

16 

322 

52 

18 

2.3 

544 



116 
28 
18 
296 
100 
33 



70 
23 

5.2 
308 
34 

4.8 



72 
20 

7.4 
343 
24 

1.0 



74 
32 

4 
313 
23 

1.5 



514 



303 



306 



277 



Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales. 



14. 



Depth feet. . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (F2O3+AI2 

3 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



225 
9.0 



300 
3.6 



325 
2.2 



9.5 



1.6 

62 

17 

22 

326 

18 

5.0 

Trace. 

312 



66 
30 
46 
275 
74 
61 



147 
25 

49l" 
65 
1.0 



483 



1.5 

62 

18 

29 
310 

21 

28 
Trace. 
331 



450 
4.2 



4.50 
0.0 



450 
10 



1,018 



2.5 



9.9 



54 
23 
74 
319 
6.5 



132 
43 
281 
464 
240 
343 



64 
29 
72 

306 
40 

101 



406 



1,277 



52 

14 

57 
264 

22 

60 
Trace. 
361 



61 
37 
9.0 

370 
10 
6.7 



315 



1. Spring at the bed of Cannon River at Cannon Falls. 1902. 

2. Spring at Vasa. 1902. 

3. Experimental well at Red Wing, situated on opposite side of Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway 
tracks from the pumping station. 

4. Village well at Kenyon. November 23, 1906. 

5. Railwav well at Cannon Falls. December 1, 1882. 

6. City well at Cannon Falls. November 23, 1906. 

7. Village well at Zumbrota. November 19, 1906. 

8. Artesian well at the St. James Hotel in Red Wing. 

9. Artesian well of the J. H. Rich Sewerpipe Company at Red AVing. June 11, 1896. 

10. Minnesota Stoneware Company well at Red Wing. January 28, 1896. 

11. Artesian well at the Red Wing brewery. 

12. Railway well at Red Wing. 1891. 

13. Well at the poor farm near Red Wing. 1902. 

14. Artesian well of the Red Wing Sewerpipe Company. May 11, 1898. 

15. Artesian well at the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway station, Red AVing. 

16. AVell at the state training school in Red AA r ing. 1899. 

Analyses 4, 0, and 7 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. S. Spaulding. Analyses 
3, 8, 11, and 1.5 were made by M. G. Roberts, chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1, 2, and 
13 were made by J. P. Maghusson, chemist University of Minnesota. Analyses 5 and 12 were furnished 
by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company- Analyses 9 and 14 were 
furnished by Edgar & Carr, chemists. Analysis 10 was furnished by the Dearborn Drug and Chemical 
Company, Chicago. Analysis 16 was furnished by C. F. Sidener, chemist University of Minnesota.' 



198 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

HENNEPIN COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The upland surface of Hennepin County consists chiefly of moraines, 
which form a series of irregular hills alternating with sharp depressions 
generally occupied by marshes, sloughs, and lakes. Minnetonka, 
the largest of the lakes, is more than 10 miles long and has 221 miles 
of shore line, so that in this respect it is one of the most remarkable 
lakes in the country. Southeast of Crow River, in the northeastern 
part of the county, there is a considerable area of relatively flat land 
in which few lakes occur. 

Minnesota River, which borders the county on the south, has a 
broad valley cut into the upland to a depth of 150 or 200 feet. The 
Mississippi, which forms most of the eastern boundary, has a valley 
of more youthful aspect. Above Minneapolis it flows through a nar- 
row and shallow trench, but in the heart of the city it descends the 
Falls of St. Anthony, and thence to Fort Snelling at the southeastern 
extremity of the county, where it is joined by the Minnesota, flowing 
through a deep but narrow gorge which has been excavated in post- 
glacial times by the recession of the falls. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Alluvium representing the flood-plain deposits of the present streams 
occupies the bottom of the valleys of Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, 
and to a less extent the valleys of some of the larger tributaries. It 
contains abundant water, but owing to the presence of considerable 
silt does not give up its water as freely as do the more porous gravels 
of the drift deposits. 

The outwash and terrace deposits consist of sand grading into 
gravel at the base, the whole attaining 50 feet or more in greatest 
thickness. The outwash deposits form a broad belt along the Mis- 
sissippi from Dayton to the vicinity of Minneapolis; the terrace 
deposits are found chiefly within the latter city and on the elevated 
terraces along Minnesota River. The surfaces of both outwash and 
terrace gravels are generally comparatively flat, but certain undula- 
tions appear upon them representing channels of old streams by which 
they were deposited in the Pleistocene epoch. Except near the eroded 
margins, the supplies of water which they furnish are generally suffi- 
cient for domestic and farm purposes. 

The glacial drift occurs over the greater part of the county. The 
surficial layer is largely of the gravelly type, especially in the north 
near the Mississippi. Over most of the county the drift is of a grayish- 
blue color, which is due to its derivation from the Ordovician and 



HENNEPIN COUNTY. 199 

Cretaceous shales farther northwest. In the southeastern part of the 
county, however, a considerable amount of red material occurs, doubt- 
less brought from the Lake Superior region far to the northeast. The 
thickness of the deposits varies, but probably averages 100 to 120 feet, 
or even more, and in a number of wells in the Lake Minnetonka region 
reaches a maximum of more than 200 feet. Considerable water exists 
in the interbedded gravel layers, and this is the source of supply for 
most of the farm and domestic wells throughout the southern and 
western portions of the county. At Minneapolis the drift waters have, 
however, become greatly reduced because of the heavy demands 
which hundreds of wells make upon them. 

In the correlation of well records from different parts of the county 
it has become obvious that along certain lines the drift is much deeper 
than elsewhere, thus plainly marking the position of preglacial or 
interglacial stream channels. One of these buried valleys lies within 
the city of Minneapolis and extends from a point near the Mississippi 
in the north part of the city westward and southwestward through 
a chain of lakes toward Minnesota River. Its presence and general 
course can easily be followed by the well sections reported from this 
vicinity. Another buried channel is suggested beneath Minnetonka, 
where the drift is more than 200 feet in depth and the rocks occur at 
a less depth on either side. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

The Decorah shale is represented by a total thickness not exceeding 
30 feet, and the Platteville limestone by an upper layer of impure lime- 
stone 10 feet thick, a middle layer of shaly limestone 5 feet thick, and 
a lower layer of argillaceous limestone 15 feet thick. The Decorah 
shale is present at only a few localities, the most important of which 
is on the west side of the Mississippi, about 2 miles west of the Falls 
of St. Anthony. 

The Platteville limestone occurs in the elevated land in the northern 
and northeastern portions of Minneapolis and south of that city to 
Minnesota River, constituting a flat, thin belt several miles long and 
of undetermined width. This is the rock over which the water flows 
at the Falls of St. Anthony. It contains some underground water 
in the joints, bedding planes, and solution passages, but the amounts 
are too small to be taken into account as a source of supply. 

The St. Peter sandstone, where not eroded, ranges from 150 to 
175 feet in thickness. According to well drillings it is characterized 
by a number of shale partings in the lower third of the formation. 
It outcrops in the bluff of the Mississippi below the Falls of St. 
Anthony, and occurs beneath the limestone at the falls. West of 
Minneapolis it forms a subglacial belt extending from the Mississippi 
to the Minnesota, but the exact position of its boundaries can not be 



200 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

indicated, on account of the deep covering of drift. The formation 
contains large amounts of water, especially in the portions away from 
the river and beneath the bed of the stream. Near the river the water 
of the upper part is largely removed owing to drainage into the deep 
valley. The lower part of the formation, beneath the shale, is every- 
where water bearing, and, although much depleted by the large 
number of wells that have been sunk to it, still affords supplies to 
numerous wells in Minneapolis and the vicinity. 

The Shakopee dolomite is the lowest of the formations that outcrop 
in the county. It lies beneath the surface deposits in a north-south 
belt across the central portion but is everywhere deeply covered with 
drift and carries but little water. 

The new Richmond sandstone here consists merely of a series of 
sandy lenses occurring at somewhat different horizons in the lime- 
stone. Probably in more than one-half the wells of Hennepin County 
it was not detected by the driller. Where it exists it will supplement 
the supplies from the other sandstones, although it does not hold as 
much water proportionately as the St. Peter or Jordan, owing to the 
presence of the limy cement which partly fills its pores and to its 
lenticular distribution. 

The Oneota dolomite reaches a thickness of 100 feet or more. It 
underlies Minneapolis and the rest of the eastern part of the county, 
but is seldom utilized as a source of water supply. 

The Jordan sandstone is SO to 100 feet thick. In the northern 
part of the county it lies beneath thick deposits of drift and in the 
neighborhood of Lake Minnetonka it occurs in the preglacial valleys. 
Like the other formations, it dips eastward, and numerous wells 
prove its existence in the eastern two-thirds of the county. It is 
penetrated by the deep wells in Minneapolis and forms a strong 
water horizon. 

The St. Lawrence formation, according to the recent investigations 
of Prof. F. W. Sardeson, consists of two layers of dolomite, one form- 
ing the upper part of the formation and the other its bottom, between 
which is interpolated a series of green and blue shales associated with 
considerable sandstone. There is some water within the formation, 
but it is too much loaded with mineral salts to be satisfactory for 
either drinking or commercial supplies, as was proved by two wells 
which were drilled into it within the city of Minneapolis. 

The Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales are found in every 
well within this county that reaches lower than the St. Lawrence. 
These formations constitute a strong water zone. 

The red clastic series occurs in great thickness beneath Hemiepin 
County, as was proved in drilling the well at Lakewood Cemetery 
in Minneapolis. This well, which reached a depth of 2,150 feet, 
passed through at least 1,140 feet of these beds and penetrated the 



HENNEPIN COUNTY. 201 

granitic rock. The red series carries a little water, but its yield is 
utterly insignificant when compared with the abundant supplies that 
can always be found in the overlying formations. 

SOURCES OF WATER. 

The sources of water utilized in Hennepin County are varied, de- 
pending on the situation, the purpose for which water is desired, the 
quantity required, and other factors. 

Lakes. — In this county, probably more than in any other of south- 
ern Minnesota, the lakes have been utilized for water supplies. This 
is due to the large population in the cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, 
which draws on the surrounding country for food of every description. 
Many of the market gardens are located beside the lakes, and the crops 
are freely watered from the supplies which they afford. Around the 
larger lakes, particularly Lake Minnetonka, Christmas Lake, and Medi- 
cine Lake, the villas, lawns, and gardens are all watered from pipes 
leading from the lakes. 

Streams. — There is scarcely a stream in the county that is not drawn 
on heavily for water supplies. Indeed, many of them have practically 
disappeared within the last generation through the demands for water 
to use upon the adjacent land, and the lakes which are intimately 
associated with them in the drainage of the county are consequently 
becoming notably smaller. 

Springs. — From the Falls of St. Anthony down the gorge of Missis- 
sippi River to Fort Snelling and thence up Minnesota River to the 
west line of the county numerous springs issue from the valley walls. 
The geologic structure determining their occurrence is very simple. 
The Paleozoic rocks beneath the glacial drift are the floor on which 
the waters entering the drift flow until their outlet is reached. In 
other parts of the county, especially from the falls northeastward 
along the Mississippi to Dayton, and thence along Crow River to 
the west line of Greenwood Township, there are many excellent 
springs, but they are neither so large nor so numerous as those along 
the Mississippi-Minnesota stretch above mentioned. In the interior 
of the county are also many springs, due largely to the morainic 
character of the glacial drift. They are utilized extensively as a 
source of water supply, but within the cities and villages they are 
liable to contamination and should not generally be used for drinking 
purposes. In the southwestern part of Minneapolis is a series of 
springs that feed several lakes. This series includes the Glenwood- 
Inglewood springs, which provide a large amount of drinking water 
for the city and which are situated along a slope that forms one side 
of the preglacial valley now occupied by Bassetts Creek. The 
Paleozoic rocks are here covered by a gray bowlder clay, upon which 



202 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

lies a red bowlder clay. Between these two beds of clay issue the 
springs. Analyses of several spring- waters will be found in Plate X. 

The glacial drift. — The glacial drift is the principal source of water 
supply for the people of the county. Everywhere wells are sunk 
into this material, and the water stands so near the surface that it 
is obtained with the greatest ease. Owing to the contamination of 
the water, however, this supply is fast falling into disuse in the 
thickly populated parts of the county. 

The sandstones. — There are three strong water-bearing sandstones 
in the county, the St. Peter, the Jordan, ami the Dresbach. The St. 
Peter is first reached in drilling, and is therefore heavily drawn on. 
The Jordan is sufficiently coarse and porous to allow the water to 
percolate through it with great freedom, and hence affords copious 
supplies. The Dresbach sandstone carries a large supply of water. 
The approximate depths to these zones can be ascertained by referring 
to Plate X. 

HEAD OF THE WATER. 

In the Minnesota Valley along its entire stretch bordering this 
county, in the Mississippi Gorge below the Falls of St. Anthony, 
and in the Mississippi River valley in the northern part of the county, 
the water from the deeper beds will rise above the surface and flowing 
wells can be obtained. On the upland surface at Minneapolis and 
elsewhere, however, the water from all horizons remains a short dis- 
tance below the surface and must be pumped. 

QUALITY OF THE WATER. 

The mineral composition of the water from the various sources 
mentioned above is graphically shown in Plate X. It will be 
seen that the analyses here given indicate no notable differences in 
the composition of the waters from the three chief water zones — the 
St. Peter, Jordan, and Dresbach sandstones. The water from all 
three is moderately mineralized, the principal dissolved constituents 
being the bicarbonate radicle, calcium, ami magnesium, which produce 
some scale in boilers and render the water hard. Much of this scale can 
be removed by heating the water before admitting it into the boilers, 
and the same process will reduce its hardness or soap-consuming 
property. The water from the St. Lawrence formation, and without 
doubt that from the Shakopee and Oneota dolomites and the red 
clastic series, is harder than that from the three principal sand- 
stones. The water from the glacial drift (including the springs that 
■issue from the drift) varies considerably, but, according to the 
analyses given, has a slightly lower average hardness than the sand- 
stone waters. The water from the river also contains considerable 
quantities of calcium and magnesium and of the bicarbonate radicle, 
but its average hardness is less than that of the underground waters. 



SifelSiO,) 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe, 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na + K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOj) 

Sulphate radicle (BO, i 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



AV. 



AY 



28. 

9.2 

3.1 

137. 



CLAOIAL DRIFT 



AV 



AV 



19. 

1.4 

75. 

25. 

14. 

325. 

5.3 

308. 



AV. 



14. 
1.7 
64. 
28. 
5/6 
297. 
26. 
4.2 
354. 



NEW RICHMOND 



15. 

68. 

29. 

11. 

360. 

7.7 
316. 



20 



AY 



16. 
4.4 
80. 
30. 
9.4 
405. 
12. 
6.2 
350. 



107. 

32. 

19. 
342. 
125. 

22. 



LHtKSIlACH. ETC 



City datum 700.5 



[Glacial drift. 

■ Lkenrah shale 
'Platteville limestone 



St. Peter sandstone 

r Shakopee dolomite 
New Richmond sandstone 
Oneola dolomite 
Jordan sandstone 

St. Lawrence formation 



Dresbach sandstone 





840 850 848 845 854 



m I ! 



Shale3 and sandstones 



Red clastic series 



AV. 



13. 

3.4 
75. 
29. 
6.5 
378. 
21. 
2.5 
328. 




ANALYSES OF MINNEAPOLIS WATERS ARRANGED AND AVERAGED ACCORDING TO ROCK FORMATIONS. 



issl', by .1 \ Dodge. 

382 b) .i \ i ge 

. byG.M. David on 



1897, bj Edgar & 



■ 'in' porati vi 

1 spring wator \nalyi i ■ 



, 1883, byW, v Noye 



In 1 1 !■■ 1 1 \ui.ii] spline wilier. Analysis Jan. 21, 18S(i, liy *'. V. NidiMier, 

ii Glenv I pring watm Inalyaii February, 1885, by J. A.Dodge. 

12. Si Vnti j I alls mineral i pring water, 



: deal Modi, ii 
15. Well of J. S. 
Frankforter. 
in Well of \ Dickenson, Twenty-fourth 



venue SE, Analysis i 
1894, In ' w Drew 



Is. W.llal II. S. Soldiers' Ilmne. Analysis . I in 

in. Well <4 E. S w oodwortb Elevator i 'ompany 
A Marine] 
Well of General Electric Company. Analyi 



, imi, in C. W, Drew, 



dOmaha Elailway Company. Analy- 
Analysis Dec. 21, 1897, by Edgar A 



21. Will of Chicago, SI. Paul, Minimal mils 

sisjuly 2(1, mill, by il. M. Davidson 

22. Wi'll of Baltimore Parkin- < pany 

Mariner. 

23. Well of O. W. Kossubc. Analysis Feb. Ii. lSlKi. liy F.d«ur A Mariner. 

2-1. Well of Minneapolis Biewine ('empair.' Anal v>i s Mav 12, lilllll. bv li M 
Davidson 



J.. Weill,! Xurlbern Pa. ilie II. el,..., I 

1901, by li. .\ rid on 

'I. Well el Nell! P.l, ill. PaillMU 



elli|>.'li\ : 

Vuah 



ii d I., i F : eli e. . 

.'v i. nil I, 

mil Saull Ste M '.e r ii .: 



27 We||",,(.l .,„ • 8l III 

2 u. ll u .',,.. Buildin 

29. Wollol >.i Ii 

'' U He ,1 

30, Well of Interior Elevator Company, v- I ' □ B I 96, b Edgar & Mariner 

;i Well.. i Minneapolis Knitting Work* \i..P. i l<« ''. I'm. in l I' M.-e.la 

lii.' Well al Weal lintel A,, all i \u nil ,. In .1 \ IgO 



:; v.eii ... He e ,, i.i, , i inula i v. He i. 

'i V..II ii .1.1 .a iiini. in,.. \ i.i.l s i Ii, , ::i, lam,. |,, \ n .u |, 

ffi ii " I." I i "•". Building '... dj i In 1894, in C, H Drevi 

111 '■■'■ "i i ile "i e Anali i I el, ,, |.»i, | M \ n 

Me ,1 



'., «ell 111 |-..aei hell e, \ I , . .1 I e I : . I . . I T> . 1 , i ;, III I l|.,-| Analysis Fob. 20, 1907, 

Analysis Sept. 2s. 
Analysis Api 21, 1899, by Kdgar £ 



I. \ Ii M,,.| 
liS Well al line , Mil wailkee uinl SI Paul 1,'nil r. a ■. I,.,, 

1000 b; • i'e -in 

"SI Well al Me. I., i I lain I. 1 01 I to 

i .in 



HENNEPIN COUNTY. 203 

MINNEAPOLIS PUBLIC SUPPLY. 

The Minneapolis public water supply is taken from Mississippi 
River. In early days fire protection was needed for the mills erected 
around the Falls of St. Anthony and for the groups of stores and shops 
built along the banks of the stream. The river was drawn on to pro- 
cure water for this purpose and ever since has furnished the public 
supply. Some years ago the pumping stations at the Falls of St. 
Anthony were closed by the city water department and a larger pump- 
ing station was erected 3 miles or more up the river, where there was 
no danger of sewage contamination from the city. Later the east-side 
pumping station was erected. 

The pollution of the river water is the most serious objection to its 
use as a city supply. The basin of the Mississippi above the pumping 
stations contains about 20,000 square miles and is the home of 300,000 
to 400,000 people, of whom approximately 75,000 live in cities and 
villages located on the banks of the river. Under these conditions 
it is practically impossible to prevent the pollution of the stream and 
its accompanying serious risk to the health of all citizens making use 
of the water. Moreover, the immense number of logs coming down 
the river annually, the contamination from sawdust, and the pollution 
incident to the residence on the river of hundreds of men engaged 
in the lumbering industries lead to continual risk in the use of the 
water. 

The investigations of the Minneapolis water department have led 
to the recommendation of settling reservoirs and a sand filtration 
plant, by which the matter in suspension, and especially the organic 
content of the water, could be removed. The expense of such a sys- 
tem, which would amount practically to $1,500,000, led the water 
department to proceed only to the establishment of the settling reser- 
voirs. A filtration plant would cost approximately $1,000,000. 

Meanwhile the question has been raised whether the waters stored 
in the sandstone formations would not furnish a more satisfactory 
source. In a comparison of the two prospective sources of supply, sev- 
eral factors must be considered, the most important of which may 
be enumerated as follows: (1) The quantity available, (2) the sani- 
tary quality, (3) the mineral quality, (4) the cost of installation, 
and (5) the cost of operation. 

The last-named factor, the cost of supplying the water after the 
plant is installed, resolves itself chiefly, so far as the underground 
source is concerned, into a question of the head of the water — that is, 
the height to which the water will be lifted by artesian pressure and 
the distance it must be lifted artificially in order to bring it to the 
surface. The head will depend in large measure on the quantity 
of water available, and hence these two factors must be considered 
together. 



204 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The general problem of the yield and head of underground water 
involves three more specific problems — (1) the total quantity of water 
now stored in the rock formations, (2) the rate at which new supplies 
of water will be furnished to the rock formations from winch the 
water is withdrawn by pumping, and (3) the resistance that the rock 
offers to the transmission of water. The volume of water in the for- 
mations underlying Minneapolis is without doubt very large, and the 
potential annual accession from the rainfall is also great. The cru- 
cial question, however, pertains to the resistance of the rock to the 
transmission of water. As no precise data are at hand in regard to 
the porosity and size of grain of the various sandstones, no definite 
statements can be made as to the rate at which the rocks will con- 
duct water under a given pressure gradient. Nevertheless, rough 
calculations have been made in winch maximum and minimum values 
for the porosity and size of grain have been used, and these calcula- 
tions indicate, with favorable assumptions, that if the quantity of 
water required for the Minneapolis public supply were pumped from 
wells, even though these wells were distributed over a considerable 
area and should draw from all the principal water zones, the water 
level in the wells would be materially lowered. As only a moderate 
lowering of the water level would greatly increase the cost of pumping, 
it is evident that a system depending on underground supplies should 
not be installed without first conducting a careful series of experi- 
ments on the water-yielding capacity of the available formations. 

The mineral quality of the various waters has already been dis- 
cussed; the sanitary problems involve so many issues beyond the 
proper scope of this report that they can not be considered here. 

HOUSTON COUNTY. 

By 0. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The upland surface of Houston County is a much dissected plateau 
1,150 to 1,300 feet above sea level and more than 500 feet above the 
valley of Mississippi River. Where the upland surface remains the 
topography is relatively level, but in the vicinity of the streams it is 
extremely rugged. The sink holes due to the caving of the subter- 
ranean drainage channels are a common feature, and in some places 
their linear arrangement is very noticeable. A thin covering of loess 
subdues irregularities and helps to make the upland surface more 
nearly level. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

There is little or no glacial drift in this county, the only covering 
for the rocks being the residuum resulting from their decay and the 



HOUSTON COUNTY. 205 

mantle of yellow silt or loess, the whole rarely more than 25 feet thick. 
In the early days many shallow wells were sunk into the loess and 
residuum, but it was found that the supplies from this source were 
small and uncertain. 

In the valleys of Mississippi River and its tributaries there are 
alluvial deposits which vary in thickness from a few feet to nearly 
200 feet, the usual range being between 50 and 100 feet. Water 
occurs everywhere in these deposits, but because of the clay silt 
present it is yielded rather slowly in many wells. In the gravel fan 
at the mouth of Root River, opposite La Crosse, the materials are 
coarser than elsewhere, and larger supplies should be obtained at 
this point than elsewhere. In general the yield is smaller than that 
from the underlying rocks. 

There are many terraces along the sides of the Mississippi River 
valley. They extend up the tributary valleys and form an important 
economic as well as an interesting topographic feature. Owing to 
the leakage on the exposed valley sides wells must be sunk about 
to the level of the flood plain before permanent water supplies can 
be obtained. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

Rock outcrops occur everywhere along the cliffs of the valleys of 
the Mississippi and its tributaries, affording abundant opportunity 
for the determination of the character and thickness of the succes- 
sive beds. The rock formations outcropping at the surface are all 
Paleozoic. 

The green Decorah shale is represented by a thickness of 25 feet, 
and is underlain by a massive bed of Platteville limestone,, averaging 
15 feet in thickness. Because of resistance to erosion, together with 
geologic position, these formations constitute the highest land in 
the county, capping the high areas in the southwestern corner. They 
yield small supplies to shallow wells, but are of little value as a source 
of water. Some springs occur at the margins of their areas, but most 
of the water sinks through the crevices of the formations into the 
underlying sandstone. 

The St. Peter sandstone here is about 80 feet thick, or only one- 
half the thickness of the same formation in Hennepin County. It 
occurs beneath the Platteville limestone in the southwestern part of 
the county and underlies a large area of the uplands south of Root 
River. Although cemented by iron and somewhat resistant in places, 
a condition due to surface alteration, it does not generally give rise 
to rock exposures, the outcrop area commonly being flat and covered 
with grass and trees. It yields moderate supplies of water to shallow 
wells, but owing to the free escape of its water to the adjoining low- 
lands it does not afford amounts sufficient for industrial or public 
supplies. 



206 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The Shakopee dolomite is about 75 foot thick, occurring beneath 
the uplands above t ho river valleys. It carries some water in joints, 
bedding pianos, and solution passages, and gives rise to a number of 
springs, but it does not generally afford supplies adequate even for 
domestic and farm purposes. 

The New Richmond sandstone, which ranges up to 35 feet in thick- 
ness, is exposed beneath the Shakopee in the uplands several hundred 
feet above the stream. It affords little water along its outcrops, but 
where it is covered by younger rocks, as in the southwestern portion 
of the county, it may furnish supplies of considerable importance to 
moderately deep wells, though generally the amounts will prove insuf- 
ficient for industrial or public supplies. 

The Oneota dolomite, which is approximately 150 feet thick, out- 
crops in the upper portion of the cliffs bordering Mississippi and 
Boot rivers and their tributaries and forms conspicuous bluffs and 
pinnacles. The upper portion is often broken and characterized by 
the presence of chert and other concretions. It contains some water 
in joints, bedding planes, and solution passages. Along the borders 
of the valley springs of considerable importance issue from this for- 
mation, a few yielding sufficient quantities for industrial or public sup- 
plies and even for water power. 

The Jordan sandstone, a coarse buff sandstone about 100 feet thick, 
outcrops below the Oneota in the cliffs bordering Mississippi and Root 
rivers. In the greater part of the county it yields abundantly, the 
public supplies for several villages being derived from it. Near the 
outcrops, however, the yield is greatly reduced because of the escape 
of the water into adjacent valleys. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of green and gray calcareous 
shales with some green sand and occasional sandstone layers, having 
a total thickness of about 175 feet. It outcrops in the lower portions 
of the cliffs of the Mississippi and underlies the bottom of Root River 
and the lower portions of its tributaries to the western border of 
the county. It contains considerable water in the sandy layers and 
is said to yield ilows at a few localities in the valleys. It has, how- 
ever, little value as a water zone, its yield being materially less than 
that from the overlying Jordan or the underlying Dresbach sandstone. 

The Dresbach sandstone is a massive, crumbling sandstone about 
60 feet thick, with occasional cemented layers. It outcrops along 
the cliffs of the Mississippi and beneath the alluvium of Root River. 
Its base is approximately at the level of the Chicago, Milwaukee and 
St. Paul Railway along the Mississippi. It is a strong water-bearing 
formation, and in the valley of Root River yields abundantly, the 
water being used for industrial and public supplies. Beneath the 
upland it contains large quantities of water, but there is generally no 



HOUSTON COUNTY. 207 

advantage in sinking to it, as the supplies are not materially larger 
than those from the Jordan except near an outcrop of the latter. 

Underlying the Dresbach sandstone are several hundred feet of shale 
and sandstone, which lie almost entirely below the level of the flood 
plain of the Mississippi and are encountered only in deep wells. The 
upper portion consists of blue and green shale and the lower of porous 
sandstone. The shale furnishes an impervious cap, which confines 
the water in the sandstone, thus giving rise to splendid flows from the 
sandstone in the valleys of Mississippi and Root rivers. The yield 
is generally sufficient for all purposes, including industrial and public 
supplies. 

Beneath the last-mentioned sandstone are the red shales, sand- 
stones, and quartzites of the red clastic series, which rests upon the 
granitic rock. Neither the red clastic series nor the granite will yield 
much water. Following is the section of an artesian well drilled in 
1878 in the village of Brownsville for the Chicago, Milwaukee and 
St. Paul Railway Company. The granite was here encountered at 
about 70 feet above sea level. 

Well section at Brownsville. 
[Authority, W. E. Swan, driller.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Alluvium: 

Blue clay 

Basal Cambrian: 

Limestone 

Blue shale 

Green shale 

Sandstone (probably including some of the Algonkian (?) red clastic series). 
Granite (entered 20 feet). 



Feet. 
40 



60 

70 

375 



Feet. 
40 

65 
125 
195 
570 



UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Head of the water. — Flowing wells can be obtained in the valleys of 
Mississippi and Root rivers throughout their entire extent in this 
county and also in the lower courses of the tributary streams (PL IV). 
On the upland the water in the deep wells remains several hundred 
feet below the surface. For example, in the village well at Caledonia 
it is reported to stand about 250 feet and in the village well at Spring 
Grove about 300 feet below the surface. 

Quality of the water. — The water from all horizons is moderately 
mineralized, the principal constituents being calcium, magnesium, 
and the bicarbonate radicle. (See the accompanying table of analyses 
and PI. V.) A wide variation in the waters of this county in normal 
chlorine content was noted by H. C. Carel a in his investigations 
several years ago. A general statement summarized from these 
reports is to the effect that the deep-lying water-bearing strata are 

a Eighteenth Rept. Minnesota State Board of Health, 1899-1900, pp. 241-260; Nineteenth Rept., 1901-2, 
p. 346-356. 



208 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

much more heavily loaded with chlorine than the shallower beds. 
At Houston in 1900 there were 28 artesian wells, ranging in depth 
between 230 and 310 feet, all obtaining their water from sandstones 
lower than the Dresbach. The shallowest of these wells yielded the 
least chlorine, 44.2 parts per million; the deepest yielded 187.2 parts 
per million. On the higher ground around Houston, where the sup- 
plies are drawn from the Jordan, the New Richmond, and even from 
so high a formation as the St. Peter, the amount of chlorine is appre- 
ciably less. The average chlorine content of springs flowing from 
these formations is, for the county, only 4.6 parts per million. As a 
summary of Card's investigations the following figures have been 
compiled from the large amount of material gathered by him: 

Average chlorine content of underground waters. 

Parts per 
million. 

Springs (several formations) 4.6 

Shallow wells 2. 8 

Jordan sandstone 9. 4 

Dresbach sandstone 13 

Lower sandstone 9.5 

Red clastic series 76 

Springs. — There are springs along the base of the cliffs at numerous 
points, the waters draining freely from the rocks wherever they are 
cut by deep valleys. In the vicinity of Hokah many springs rise 
from the base of the Jordan sandstone. Several miles west of Hokah 
is Stimpson Spring, which was long a favorite resort and which is 
reported to issue from above an impervious limestone as a stream of 
considerable size. When the county was first settled there were 
many gristmills operated by water power, and streams issuing from 
springs were frequently utilized. Winnebago Creek, Pine Creek, 
Thompson Creek, Money Creek, Beaver Creek, Crooked Creek, and 
Crystal Creek are all examples. 

WATER SUPPLY FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Caledonia. — The village of Caledonia and the farms adjacent have 
reported a number of wells ranging from 250 to 312 feet in depth, in 
some of which the water stands more than 250 feet below the surface. 
A generalized section of these wells is given below. 

General section at Caledonia. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Loam clay and bottom of St. Peter sandstone . 

Shakopee dolomite 

New Richmond sandstone 

Oneota dolomite 

Jordan sandstone (entered 40 feet). 



Feet. 

70 

40 

10 

150 



Feet. 

70 

110 

120 

270 



a Winchell, N. H., Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol.1, 1882, p. 208. 



HOUSTON COUNTY. 209 

The public supply is obtained from a well 320 feet deep. Two 
analyses of the water are given in the table (p. 210). About 3 miles 
from Caledonia there is a spring which for many years was used by 
the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company for locomo- 
tive supplies. An analysis of water from this spring is also given in 
the table. 

Houston. — The village of Houston lies in the valley of Root River, 
which here apparently flows over a bed of the St. Lawrence formation. 
In the valley flowing wells are obtained from the Dresbach and lower 
sandstones. The public waterworks are supplied from a well 6 inches 
in diameter and 302 feet deep, which has been pumped at the rate of 
130 gallons a minute. The water rises 12 feet above the surface, or 
about 960 feet above sea level. All the people depend on private 
supplies. 

Spring Grove. — The village of Spring Grove is situated in the highest 
portion of the county, where the Platteville limestone occurs. The 
public waterworks are supplied from a well 396 feet deep, but many of 
the private wells are shallow. The water in the deep wells stands far 
below the surface. 

Hokah. — Along the valley of Root River in the vicinity of Hokah 
there are flowing wells with considerable head. In several wells 
where the situation is favorable the natural head of water is used to 
operate hydraulic rams that lift the water to levels to which it would 
not otherwise rise. At Hokah this inexpensive and convenient 
method of pumping is employed at the village waterworks. Ordi- 
narily this device raises sufficient water, but a gasoline engine can 
be used in case of shortage. The village well is 544 feet deep, the 
water rising 18 feet above the surface or 692 feet above sea level. 
The yield exceeds present needs, though in the past there has been 
some difficulty owing to the loss of water either through a leak in the 
casing or through the uncased portion of the sandstone. An analysis 
of the water is given in the table. The public supply is used by 
about one-half the people and about 5,000 gallons is consumed daily. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The three strongest water-bearing formations are the Jordan, 
Dresbach, and basal Cambrian sandstones. On the upland they lie 
at depths of several hundred feet and the water stands far below the 
surface. In the deepest valleys they occur at or near the surface, 
and where not exposed by erosion give rise to flows. The basal Cam- 
brian sandstone is best protected from erosion and is therefore the 
best artesian zone. The water from all sources is moderately hard. 
60920°— wsp 256—11 14 



210 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Mineral analyses of water in Houston County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



1. 



2. 



3. 



Depth feet.. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) . 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



IS 



25 



110 



299 



300 



320 



61 
21 
9.3 

326 

5 

1.3 
267 



49 ' 
28 
6.3 
264 
3.4 
23 
246 



102 
31 
30 

389 
61 
47 

406 



331 
4.6 



280 



3.9 
137 

15 

13 
435 

24 

34 
441 



69 
31 
3.3 

335 
27 
4.2 
300 



1.7 

64 

24 

56 
279 

50 

71 
404 



5.3 
62 

28 

11 

327 



18 

286 



320 

16 
2.7 

70 

31 

11 
256 

12 

30 
322 



544 
9.2 
2.9 

76 

29 
6.7 
343 

28 

4 

279 



1. Spring at Caledonia used by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 1892. 

2. Spring at Hokah used by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 1892. 

3. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Houston. October, 1892. 

4. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at River Junction. June, 1900. 

5. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Spring Grove. July, 1892. 

6. Chicago', Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway artesian well at River Junction. April, 1902. 

7. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Houston. May, 1895. 

8. Village well at Caledonia. July, 1894. 

9. Village well at Caledonia. November, 1906. 

10. Village well at Hokah. November, 1906. 

Analyses 1 to 8, inclusive, were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 
Railway Company. Analyses 9 and 10 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. S. 
Spaulding. 

JACKSON COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzbr. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

In general the surface of Jackson County slopes very gradually 
from the southwestern corner, which is nearly 1,600 feet above sea 
level, to the northeastern, where the altitude is about 1,300 feet. 
The surface constitutes a nearly level and poorly drained upland 
prairie covered with lakes, ponds, and swamps. This nearly level 
surface is, however, interrupted by two prominent physical features. 
One of these is a morainic belt which has a more irregular topography 
and a higher general altitude than the surrounding prairie and runs 
with a north-south trend through the middle tier of townships, also 
occupying the southwestern corner of the county. The other is the 
valley of Des Moines River, which is a postglacial gorge between 100 
and 150 feet deep. This gorge is a rather striking feature in a region 
otherwise so little affected by erosion, but its extreme youth is 
apparent from the fact that it has only a few short tributaries and 
drains only a narrow strip of land on either side. In the geologic 
future the system of tributaries will become greatly extended and 
the sluggish streams on the undissected uplands will be captured by 
Des Moines River. 

Heron Lake, the largest lake in southwestern Minnesota, is entirely 
within this county. It seems to lie in the nearly obliterated valley 
of an ancient stream which once flowed southeastward along the line 
of Lake Yankton, Lake Shetek, Heron Lake, and Spirit Lake." 



oUpham, Warren, Pinal Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 507. 



JACKSON COUNTY. 21L 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift forms a mantle which everywhere 
covers the older formations and averages between 200 and 300 feet 
in thickness. At several points south of this county the thickness 
revealed by drilling was somewhat less than 300 feet; in the southern 
half of the county many wells end in drift at 200 to 300 feet below 
the surface, and several apparently at still greater depths; in the 
northeastern and north-central parts underlying formations have 
been reached at 250 to 300 feet. In some localities in the north- 
western part, however, the drift is relatively thin, owing to the pres- 
ence of a buried quartzite ridge. Thus in the vicinity of Okabena 
the rock has been reached at depths of about 150 feet, in the village 
of Heron Lake at 110 and 195 feet, and at points just across the 
Nobles County line at 100 and 120 feet, although the average thick- 
ness in the northwestern part is greater than these figures would 
indicate. 

The following section, to a depth of 350 feet, is typical of the drift. 
It is the log of a well drilled near Jackson, on the farm of H. W. 
Miller, NE. \ sec. 30, T. 102 N., R. 34 W. 

Well section near Jackson. 
[Authority, Gilbert Nourse, driller, Jackson.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Yellow bowlder clay 

Blue bowlder clay 

Yellow bowlder clay 

White sand 

Blue clay (bowlders at 300 feet) 

Yellow clay 

"Light green" clay ("greasy," contains pebbles). 
Fine sand 



Feet. 

25 

175 

15 

5 

130 

5 

5 



Feet. 
25 
200 
215 
220 
350 
355 
360 
368 



Yield of water. — Seams of sand and gravel thick enough and coarse 
enough to yield adequate supplies are found at some depth in nearly 
every locality. The 10-inch village well at Lakefield and the 8-inch 
village well at Alpha serve as examples. The former, which termi- 
nates in a thick gravel layer 190 feet below the surface, has been 
pumped for eight hours continuously at the rate of 175 gallons a 
minute; the latter, 96 feet deep, has been tested for two hours at 
100 gallons a minute. The alluvial deposits in the valley of Des 
Moines River often provide large quantities of water from very shal- 
low depths. 

Head of the water. — In a region having a relatively low altitude there 
is usually not much difference in the head of the water from different 
depths, that from all horizons coming near the surface. The eastern 
part of Martin County affords a good example of this condition. 



212 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

On the other hand, in an area of relatively high altitude, where the 
water has many opportunities to percolate to lower levels, there is 
likely to be an important difference in the head from the various 
horizons in the same locality, the water frequently coming nearer 
the surface in the shallow than in the deep wells. Jackson County, 
and especially the morainic belt occupying the central part, offers a 
good illustration of this second condition. Thus, at Lakefield there 
is a gravelly bed at a depth of 80 or 90 feet from which the water 
rises within about 10 feet of the surface, and another at 180 feet 
from which it rises only within about 100 feet of the surface; in the 
deepest wells of this region the water frequently remains still farther 
below the surface. 

Near Des Moines River the head is lowered by seepage into the 
valley, as is shown by the many springs along the valley sides. 

Quality of the water. — The waters from the glacial drift are repre- 
sented in the accompanying table (p. 216) by analyses 2 to 7. They all 
contain considerable quantities of calcium and magnesium, together 
with large amounts of sulphates, for which reason they have a great 
permanent hardness and will deposit hard scale in boilers. The water 
from the alluvium in the Des Moines Valley is only moderately hard 
and hence is better adapted for use in boilers. It is represented by 
analysis 1 in the table. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — In this county and in all the adjoining counties strata 
of shale and sandstone believed to be of Cretaceous age have been 
encountered by the drill immediately beneath the drift. It is there- 
fore probable that they underlie much of this county, though every- 
where deeply buried. In some localities in the northwestern part, 
however, they are absent. Plate IX shows the approximate sections 
of several wells that enter the Cretaceous rocks. According to S. J. 
Moe, of Lakefield, a well on the farm of A. L. Bradley, SW. \ sec. 35, 
T. 103 N., R. 36 W., east of Lakefield, is about 500 feet deep, passing 
through nearly 200 feet of shale and ending in sand. 

Yield of water. — In all but the northwestern part of the county 
formations of sand or sandstone will probably be found at depths 
ranging from about 250 to 500 feet. These will generally furnish 
copious supplies of water, but the unconsolidated sand will cause 
trouble in some wells if not skillfully handled. 

Head of the water. — On the upland prairies the water from deep 
sources will remain at depths of 100 to 250 feet. In the valley of 
Des Moines River it will of course rise nearer the surface, but flows 
can nowhere be expected. Windom, Minn., and Estherville, Iowa, 
are both situated in this valley, the former being just north of the 
Jackson County line and the latter several miles south. In neither 



JACKSON COUNTY. 213 

city can flows be obtained from the Cretaceous. The water seems to 
rise to about 1,250 feet above sea level in the northern part of the 
county and to somewhat less than 1,200 feet in the southern, while the 
valley of Des Moines River is more than 1,300 feet above sea level 
at the northern boundary and more than 1,250 feet at the southern. 
Quality of the water. — Analysis 8 in the accompanying table repre- 
sents Cretaceous water. It is high in calcium, magnesium, and 
sulphates, and is therefore a hard water and poor for boiler purposes. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

At Lake Park, Iowa, a few miles south of this county, a well was 
drilled for the railway company to a depth of 804 feet. Stratified 
formations, chiefly shale, sand, and sandstone, seem to make up about 
550 feet of this depth. The upper portion is supposed to be Creta- 
ceous in age, but the lower probably belongs to some Paleozoic for- 
mation. This well was tested with a large steam pump. The water is 
said to stand nearly 300 feet below the surface, or about 1,200 feet 
above sea level. It is so hard that it is not used by the railway 
company. 

SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

In most of this county the Sioux quartzite or "red rock" lies many 
hundreds of feet below the surface, but in the northwestern part it is 
sometimes encountered at depths of 100 to 200 feet. The well data 
which have been assembled show that a completely buried quartzite 
ridge extends with a northwest-southeast trend through parts of 
Murray, Nobles, and Jackson counties (PI. III). This ridge is sepa- 
rated by a deep depression from the quartzite area in Pipestone and 
Rock counties, and also apparently from that in Cottonwood County. 
It is smaller than these areas and does not rise so high. In Pipestone 
County the rock rises to more than 1,700 feet above sea level, and in 
Cottonwood County to about 1,500 feet; the extreme altitude reached 
in this area, so far as is known, is about 1,370 feet. In preglacial times 
it formed a low ridge, and in pre-Cretaceous times it must have stood 
up conspicuously above the surrounding country. At present it is 
entirely concealed beneath Cretaceous and glacial deposits. No 
quartzite wells were reported east of Heron Lake nor south of Okabena 
station. 

The Sioux quartzite will invariably yield some water if the drilling 
is carried deep enough, the water coming from the joints and less 
firmly cemented portions. The railway well at Heron Lake, whose 
section is given on Plate IX, is 6 inches in diameter at the bottom and 
was tested at 90 gallons a minute. The head and quality of the water 
from the quartzite are similar to that of the overlying formation. 



214 UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Jackson. — The village of Jackson is situated upon the banks of Des 
Moines River which has here cut a valley about 100 feet deep. On 
the west side of the river there is a narrow flood plain and a series of 
four terraces standing- at levels 15, 40, 60, and 80 feet higher. The 
valley is carved out of the glacial drift, and the ilood plain ami terraces 
are covered with deposits of alluvium. 

The public supply is pumped from a well 26 feet in diameter and 
20 feet deep, cased with brick and mortar. It is located at the north 
end of the village on the Hood plain near the river and terminates in 
alluvial gravel. In July, 1907, the water stood about 10 feet below 
the surface and was lowered about 3 feet when the well was pumped 
for two or three hours at the rate of about 300 gallons a minute. In 
times of severe drought, however, the yield is so much reduced that 
the well can be emptied in a short time. An analysis of the water is 
given in the table. About 600 people are supplied and 50,000 gallons 
of water is consumed daily. 

About two-thirds of the inhabitants use water from private wells, 
which are bored or dug into the alluvial gravels and are very shallow. 
These gravels are saturated with water and usually yield generous 
supplies, but the probability of pollution is great, especially on the 
lower levels. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company 
uses water from the river. 

Lakejleld. — The glacial drift is deep at Lakeiield, and the under- 
lying formations have never been reached in drilling. There are 
porous water-bearing deposits (1) near the surface, (2) at a depth 
of 100 feet or less, and (3) at a depth of about 185 feet. The fol- 
lowing is the approximate section of the upper 190 feet: 

Well section at Lakefield. 





Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Yellow bowlder clay 


Feet. 
15 

10 
10 
140 
15 


Feet. 
15 


Gravel ." 


25 


Yellow bowlder clay 


35 


Blue bowlder elav (.frequently sand at about 100 feet) 


175 


Sand and grave) 


190 


Blue bowlder clay. 





The public supply comes from a drilled well, which has already 
been described. About 200 people use the water, and the daily con- 
sumption amounts to approximately 25,000 gallons. The mill well 
is 180 feet deep and taps the same zone that furnishes the public 
supply. The water from both is hard but is probably as good for 



JACKSON COUNTY. 215 

boiler purposes as can be obtained. Several analyses are given in 
the table. About 80 per cent of the-people depend on private wells, 
most of which end in the yellow clay or gravelly seams near the 
surface, but some of which penetrate to the beds of sand at depths 
of 100 feet or less. 

Heron Lake. — All the people of Heron Lake are supplied from pri- 
vate wells; there are no public waterworks. Most of the data in 
regard to the railway well, whose section is shown on Plate XV, have 
already been given. The fact should be added, however, that the 
25-foot bed of sand and gravel at the base of the drift was tested and 
found to yield about 65 gallons a minute from an 8-inch hole. 

Alpha. — The village of Alpha lies upon a nearly level drift-covered 
plain. The public waterworks are supplied from a drilled well that 
has already been described. An analysis of the water is given in 
the table. All the people use water from private wells, most of which 
are shallow and yield moderate and uncertain supplies. There are, 
however, a few private drilled wells that are deeper and more 
satisfactory. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

By far the greater number of the farms are supplied by bored wells 
1 to 3 feet in diameter and cased with wood or tile. Some end in 
the surficial yellow clay or gravel, but many pass through blue 
bowlder clay and tap seams of sand and gravel at depths commonly 
ranging between 50 and 100 feet. The shallow wells are liable to 
furnish only small and uncertain supplies, but the deeper ones yield 
much more copiously. 

There are also a few drilled wells scattered through the county, 
most abundant in the northern part. They have a wide range in 
depth. Some are less than 100 feet deep and terminate in the same 
beds as the bored wells, but others have been sunk farther; a num- 
ber of farm wells more than 300 feet deep are reported. Several 
extend to the Cretaceous strata, and a very few in the northern part 
penetrate the quartzite. 

The most desirable type for farm purposes is the 6-inch drilled 
well finished with an open end. It is more permanent, yields more 
water, and is better protected from pollution than the bored type. 
Two-inch wells should not be drilled in this county, for they require 
screens, which become cemented by minerals precipitated from the 
water. If a screen must be put into a 6-inch well it should be con- 
siderably smaller than the diameter of the casing, so that it can be 
removed readily when it becomes incrusted. Wells of moderate 
depth are preferable to very deep ones because the water is likely to 
rise nearer the surface and to be less highly mineralized. 



216 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The sand and gravel beds lying at moderate depths are the most 
satisfactory source of water. They are generally superior to the 
very shallow sources (1) in yield of water, (2) in permanence of sup- 
ply, and (3) in freedom from pollution; and to the deeper drift 
deposits (1) in the height to which the water will rise, and (2) in its 
mineral quality. However, where an adequate supply is not obtained 
at a moderate depth there need be no hesitation in drilling farther. 

Deep sandstone zones that would yield abundantly no doubt occur 
in most of the county, but probably nothing would be gained by 
sinking to them. Two important questions are always asked in 
regard to the lower formations: (1) Will they give rise to flows? 
and (2) Will they supply softer water than the shallower beds ? These 
questions may be answered for this county somewhat as follows: 
Flowing wells can not be obtained from deep horizons, and on the 
upland the water will always stand far below the surface. In regard 
to soft water the answer is less certain. No soft-water beds have 
thus far been discovered in this county, but there is a possibility that 
they exist. The probabilities in the case are set forth in the dis- 
cussion of this subject in the report on Cottonwood County 
(pp. 157-15SV 

Mineral analyses of water in Jackson County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Allu- 
vium. 



20 
312 
25 
2.5 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches. . 

Silica (SiO.,) 

Iron (Fe).T 

Aluminum ( Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe o 3 +AL0..) : 

Calcium (Caf. I 69 

Magnesium (Mg) 29 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K).. 54 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) j .0 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 381 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) I 88 

Chlorine (CI) 4 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 3.5 

Total solids 4S3 



Glacial drift. 



96 

S 

23 

2.5 

2.3 



117 
39 
62 

Ui 

142 

55 

2 

671 



1S5 
6 



260 

403 
3 



5 
220 
81 
99 



444 

697 

6 



1.326 



ISO 



31 
2.7 



72 

464* 

199 
3 

692~ 



190 
10 
11 
2.8 



180 

S and 6 



6 
119 
42 
33 

46l' 

145 

3 

593* 



159 
45 
10 



462 

217 
1.6 



662 



Creta- 
ceous. 



292 
2 

14 



11 

158 
57 
43 

459' 

346 

3 

845~ 



Sioux 
quartzite. 



9. 


10. 


217 


217 


6 


8 


29 


27 



10 
130 
149 

276 



692 

886 

33 



1,855 



82 
134 



4S9 



1. Village well at Jackson. Julv 24, 1907. 

2. Village well at Alpha. Julv 24, 1907. 

3. Well at Okabena. October IS, 1S95. 

4. Well at Prairie Junction. August 30, 1S95. 

5. Mill well at Lakefield. Julv 20, 1907. 

6. Village well at Lakefield. Julv 20, 1907. 

7. Village well at Lakefield. July S. 1902. 

8. Well on the farm of Arthur Johnson, 5 miles south of Windom. Julv 19, 1907. 

9. Railway well at Heron Lake. September 19, 1900. 

10. Railway well at Heron Lake. November 22, 1902. 

Analyses 1, 2, 5, 6, and S were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, 
chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 3, 4, and 7 were furnished bv G. *N. Prentiss, chemist 
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. Analyses 9 and 10 were furnished by G. M. David- 
son, chemist Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Raflwav Companv. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 217 

KANDIYOHI COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Kandiyohi County has three distinct types of topography and can 
accordingly be divided into as many physiographic provinces" — (1) 
the irregular morainic region north and east of Willmar, (2) the area 
of gently rolling prairie south and west of that city, and (3) the level 
sandy plain in the northeastern part of the county. All three prov- 
inces are poorly drained and contain some lakes, but in the first 
named the lakes are most abundant. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The surface deposits consist almost entirely of glacial 
drift, which comprises bowlder clay and beds of sand and gravel. 
There is no outcrop of older rock and in only a very few places have 
the underlying formations been disclosed in drilling. Throughout a 
large portion of the county the drift averages not less than 300 feet 
in thickness. At Willmar drilling has been carried to a depth of 280 
feet; in sec. 6, T. 119 N., R. 34 W., to a depth of 298 feet; in sec. 22, 
T. 121 N., R. 36 W., to a depth of 303 feet; in sec. 20, T. 121 N., 
R. 35 W., to a depth of 318 feet; and in sec. 7, T. 120 N., R. 35 W., 
to a depth of 337 feet, apparently without reaching the bottom of 
the drift sheet in any case. In the southwest the drift is generally 
between 200 and 300 feet thick, and in the northeastern part it is 
also commonly less than 300 feet and is locally thin. 

The following section shows the material penetrated by the two 
railway wells at Willmar, all of it probably consisting of glacial drift : 

Well section at Willmar. 
[Authority, A. H. Hageland, chief engineer Great Northern Railway Company.] 



Clay 

Gravel.. , 

Clay 

Gravel 

Quicksand 

"Hardpan" 

Dry sand 

"Hardpan" 

Clay and quicksand. 

Clay 

Gravel 

Clay 

Sand (water) 

Gravel (water) 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 
26 

6 
42 
22 

2 
65 
11 
15 
10 
13 

3 
14 
18 
21 



Depth. 



Feet. 

26 

32 

74 

96 

98 

163 

174 

189 

199 

212 

215 

229 

247 

268 



oUpham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, pi. 40. 



218 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Yield of water. — The beds of sand and gravel are the water-bearing 
portions of the drift. In the northeast, where these are spread out 
over the surface, copious supplies can be obtained at slight depths. 
In the irregular morainic area there are also abundant deposits of 
water-bearing sand and gravel, but they are intermingled with the 
bowlder clay in the most complicated manner. In the gently undu- 
lating province the drift consists more largely of clay; yet in nearly 
every locality water will be found at some level. As a rule the 
deepest beds are the most persistent and contribute the largest and 
most permanent supplies of water, but the structure of the drift is so 
essentially irregular that every such rule has exceptions. 

In the vicinity of Willmar three rather distinct water zones are 
recognized. These are represented in the section of the Willmar 
railway wells given above by (1) the clay and gravel near the surface, 
(2) the bed of gravel between the depths of 74 and 96 feet, and (3) 
the sand and gravel deposit below 229 feet. The railway wells are 
10 inches in diameter and are supplied from the lowest of the three 
zones. One of them was tested with the following results: a 

(1) Before pumping: Water stood at 10 feet below the surface. 

(2) After pumping at the rate of 157 gallons per minute for six hours continuously: 
Water stood 13 feet below the surface. 

(3) After pumping at the same rate for nineteen hours continuously: Water stood 
14£ feet below the surface. 

(4) After pumping at the same rate for thirty hours continuously: Water stood 14£ 
feet below the surface. 

(5) Five minutes after pumping was stopped: Water had again risen to its normal 
level of 10 feet below the surface. 

The 8-inch city well at Willmar, which also extends to the deepest 
of these zones, has been pumped for four hours continuously at the 
rate of 500 gallons a minute. 

Head of the water. — On account of the surface irregularities there is 
considerable difference in the head of the water. In most localities 
it rises near the surface, and at the base of the high morainal ridge 
flows can frequently be obtained. 

There is a group of flowing wells in Lake Andrew Township (T. 121 
N., R. 35 W.) and such wells could no doubt be obtained in other 
localities. At Willmar the water from both the deep zones comes 
virtually to the surface, or slightly higher than the level of Foot Lake. 

Quality of the water. — The three analyses given in the accompan} T ing 
table (p. 221) represent the three types of water found in this county — 
(1) the water from the sandy deposits at the surface, which is moder- 
ately hard; (2) the water from the upper portions of the glacial drift 
(not including No. 1), which is very hard and in which the great 
quantities of calcium present are largely associated with the sulphate 

o Furnished by A. H. Hageland, chief engineer Great Northern Railway Company. 



KANDIYOHI COUNTY. 219 

radicle, thus producing much hard scale in boilers; and (3) the water 
from the lower portion of the drift, which is only moderately hard 
and contains relatively small amounts of the sulphate radicle. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Very little is known of the formations beneath the drift. A thin 
bed of the Cretaceous, composed chiefly of shale, is without doubt 
present in some parts of the county, but is not in others. The follow- 
ing data bear on this subject: (1) Twenty feet of blue shale were pene- 
trated in drilling 2 miles south of Raymond; (2) shale and sandstone 
have been discovered in a number of wells in Swift and Chippewa coun- 
ties to the west; (3) shales have been encountered at Renville, Olivia, 
and Bird Island, which are 7 or 8 miles south of this county; and (4) 
Cretaceous rocks, in which fossils belonging to the Benton epoch have 
been identified, a are exposed about 10 miles beyond the northeastern 
extremity of this county. 

No successful wells ending in Cretaceous rocks have been reported. 
Where these rocks are present they may consist entirely of impervious 
beds, which would not furnish water, and they are probably nowhere 
of value as a water-bearing formation. 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 

So far as is known, granite has never been struck in this county, 
though in a number of places drilling has gone to a depth of more 
than 300 feet. However, there can be no doubt that it lies generally 
within a few hundred feet of the surface. The following data throw 
light on this subject: (1) At Benson, 17 miles west of this county, 
granite was entered at a depth of about 400 feet; (2) along Minne- 
sota River, about 14 miles southwest, it is exposed at the surface; 
(3) at Renville, Olivia, Bird Island, and Hector, 7 to 10 miles 
south, it has been found at depths of 325 to 450 feet; (4) at Grove 
City, 4 miles east, it was encountered at a depth of several hundred 
feet; (5) at a few points not more than 10 miles east it was discovered 
at depths of less than 300 feet; and (6) in a number of localities 15 to 
25 miles north and northeast it comes to the surface. 

The granite will not supply water, and no water-bearing formation 
exists below it. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Willmar. — The stratigraphic section and water zones below Willmar 
have already been discussed. The upper beds yield very hard water 
and the lowest provide a softer supply. (See the analyses in the 

oKloos, J. M., A Cretaceous basin in the Sauk Valley, Minnesota: Am. Jour. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 3, 1872, 
pp. 17-26. 



220 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

table.) The water from all depths rises nearly to the surface. The 
public supply is taken from a well 8 inches in diameter and 273 feet 
deep, ending with a screen in the same thick deposit of sand as the 
railway wells described above. About 1,200 people use this water, 
and 100,000 gallons is consumed daily. Perhaps 70 per cent of the 
inhabitants are supplied from private wells, of which most are bored 
or dug into yellow clay or gravelly seams near the surface and yield 
small quantities of hard water, but a few are drilled to a depth of about 
100 feet and yield more generously. The well at the flouring mill, 
which is about 100 feet deep, has been abandoned because the water 
is too hard for boiler purposes. 

Atwater. — In the village of Atwater sand and gravel deposits near 
the surface furnish the entire water supply. An unsuccessful well 
drilled for the municipality passed through beds of sand at about 250 
and 400 feet in depth, but although these were water bearing the well 
was finished in them with difficulty. The public supply is drawn from 
four wells 3 inches in diameter and about 35 feet deep. They are pro- 
vided with screens and are pumped by suction at about 75 gallons a 
minute. The water is only moderately hard, as is shown by the 
analysis given in the table- below. About 95 per cent of the people 
use water from private wells, which are bored or driven into the 
surficial layers of sand, and the railway company is likewise sup- 
plied from a shallow well. 

New London. — The domestic supply in the village of New London 
is obtained chiefly from driven wells. The public waterworks draw 
from the lake, and surface water is generally used for industrial 
purposes. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

Three types of wells are in use in this county — (1) driven, (2) bored 
or dug, and (3) drilled. The driven wells are confined to the localities 
in which a bed of sand or gravel lies at the surface. In the large area 
in the northeastern part of the county where this condition prevails, 
nearly all the wells are driven. They are shallow and inexpensive and 
usually afford liberal supplies of only moderately hard water. The 
bored and dug wells are also shallow and do not generally reach the 
blue clay. Many of them furnish only small quantities of water and 
fail entirely in dry years, but some yield more abundantly. Most of 
the farm wells, especially in the morainic area, are bored or dug. 
Drilled wells, for the most part 2 inches in diameter, are found in 
nearty all parts of the county, but are most abundant in Arctander 
Township (T. 121 N., R. 36 W.). They vary greatly in depth, prob- 
ably averaging not much more than 100 feet. They provide ample 
supplies in localities where the bored wells fail. As the deep drift 
layers contain the softest water, there would be an advantage in 
drilling to them. 



LAC QUI PARLE COUNTY. 



221 



SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

In every part of the county the granite probably lies within a few 
hundred feet of the surface, and deep-water zones therefore do not 
exist. The glacial drift is, however, several hundred feet thick and 
contains an abundance of water. In general, the best boiler supplies 
come from the lower portions of the drift. 

Mineral analyses of water in Kandiyohi County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Surface deposits. 



1. 
Sur- 
face 
sand 
and 
gravel. 



2. 
Upper 

por- 
tion of 
glacial 
drift. 



3. 
Lower 
por- 
tion of 
glacial 
drift. 



Diameter of well inches 

Depth feet 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron ( Fe ) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe203+ AI2O3) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SOi) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



29 

2 

88 

36 

7 

346 
42 
35 

5 
421 



34 

4 

224 
76 
10 

454 

227 

148 

50 

1,012 



272 
8.4 
2 

3.2 
65 
35 
61 

.0 

454 

56 

4 

.0 

464 



1. Village wells in Atwater. September 23, 1907. 

2. Well of Nels Anderson at Willmar. September 24, 1907. 

3. City well at Willmar. September 24, 1907. 

The above analyses were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, chemist 
Minnesota state board of health. 

LAC QUI PARLE COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

Most of the surface of Lac qui Parle County consists of a plain which 
slopes very gradually toward the northeast, descending from about 
1,200 to 1,000 feet above sea level. This plain is interrupted on the 
northeast by the valley of Minnesota River, which has here been cut 
to depths of 100 to 150 feet, and on the southwest by the Coteau des 
Prairies (Dakota Hills) which lies about 500 feet above the plain. A 
low morainal ridge crosses the southwestern part of the county with 
a trend roughly parallel to the margin of the Coteau. 

The flatness of the plain, which occupies most of this county and 
extends southward into Yellow Medicine, Lyon, and Redwood 
counties, stands in decided contrast to the gentle undulations of the 
Coteau, with its numerous lakes. This difference is explained by 
Warren Upham as follows : a 

When the ice sheet, dissolved by a warmer climate, was retreating northeastward 
across Lac qui Parle County, the waters of its melting were carried to the southeast 



a Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 622. 



222 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

along the margin of the ice, which was a barrier preventing their flow in the direction 
of the present drainage. * * * A glacial lake * * * was formed in the Minne- 
sota basin along the front of the ice and reached from Faribault and Blue Earth counties 
to Big Stone Lake. * * * By this submergence the drift in Lac qui Parle County 
and upon a large part of the Minnesota basin farther southeast was spread more evenly 
and many of its hollows that would have held small lakes were filled. * * * Dur- 
ing the somewhat later recession of the ice across Big Stone County, free drainage could 
take place from its border, and the drift presents a more undulating and rolling surface, 
dotted by many little lakes. 

J. E. Todd explains in essentially the same manner the very similar 
topography of the so-called James River valley in South Dakota on 
the west side of the Coteau des Prairies. 

Several streams flow northeastward across Lac qui Parle County. 
They occupy shallow valleys until as they approach Minnesota River 
they descend rapidly to its level. They have few tributaries and 
leave large areas without any well-defined drainage system. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift consists of bowlder clay with asso- 
ciated deposits of sand and gravel. A thick accumulation of gravel 
commonly lies at the base, as is shown by the sections given in Plate 
XL Such a basal gravel is commonly found in other counties, but 
is especially well developed in this region. Because of the irregular 
surface upon which the drift rests, its thickness varies greatly within 
short distances. Throughout most of the county the thickness is 
between 100 and 200 feet; but in much of the south central part it is 
less than 100 feet, and 2^ miles south of the county line the under- 
lying rock comes to the surface; north of Dawson and between Daw- 
son and Madison the average thickness is more than 200 feet, and 
the same is true in the southwestern corner of the county (PL II). 
The Minnesota Valley has been excavated virtually out of the drift, 
and consequently the underlying rocks are here generally near the 
surface and in a few localities they form outcrops. 

Yield, head, and quality of the water. — Supplies adequate for ordi- 
nary purposes can be obtained in most places from the deposits of 
sand and gravel in the drift, but where the drift sheet is thin 
it does not invariably contain a satisfactory water-bearing bed. 
Throughout most of the county the water rises nearly but not quite 
to the surface, but within several miles of the Minnesota Valley the « 
head is lowered by leakage, which manifests itself in numerous 
springs on the valley side. South of Marietta there are a number of 
flowing wells which derive their head from the high land to the west. 
They are not accurately located on the map showing, underground 
water conditions (PI. II). All the water from the glacial drift is hard. 

o Todd, J. E., The moraines of southeastern South Dakota: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 158, 1899, p. 124. 



. GEOLOGICAL SURVEV 



Milbank 
South Dakota 



Near Bellingham Near Madison 



South of Dawson 



Boyd 



North of Boyd 



Camp Release Twp. 



g Yellow clay 
^"HardpanlL- 



ggClay.ek--.^ 



Blue shale *;-., 



HardJblue shale 
iWhite sand 

Whfecjay 



IfYellow da; 
i Gravel 



I Clay 
Sand* and gravel " 



Gravel, 

'Vlillll '..lu'll 

Granite 



I Blue shale 

I Hard blue s hale -~ 



^ Hard Blue shale 



Itluc slul.- 
''-I'.- " 



— Dark-colored 

: ■; , ' : 'White clay" 

a-fiy- ... Decon-. 1 "-'-™ 

Hards 



'Decomposed si-anile 



Milbank, s. liuk.- 

Nal. Ilisl. Survey M 
Ncarlli-lliiigli-nn. 
NeaiMadiaon. I 1 

11. 10 \V.; lipproxini 

Norlheast.ofI-.ladi-. 
preeecling are given i 



-Given bvN.H. Win 

nno-ol-., I KS5, p. 14, ( 
Well "i, farm of I 1 ir.i 
i-oiecosstul wellon fin 



, in Fourteenth Ann Kept. Geol. and 
lli.irilyof.l. \Y. Williams. 
-.iff, N'W. J see. 12, T. HON., R. 45 W. 
Jens Jacob-son, SE. \ sec. lj-T.118 N., 



GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN LAC QUI PARLE COUNTY. 

By O.E. Meinzer. 

South of Madison.— Well on farm of L. P. Satre, NE. } sec. 16, T. 117 N., R. 44 W. 

Southwest of Dawson.— Well on farm of J. J. Windingstaad, SB. ', see. 14, T. 110 N., 
R. 44 W. 

Dawson. — Generalized seel ion soulli of river at Dawson. 

South of Dawson.— Well on farm of E. A. Throndrud, SW. 1 see. 8, T. 116 N , 
R.43W. 

Boyd. — W. Swenson's well. 



This -eclim, and the six immediately preceding arc given elneflj lie authority ot 

Nicholas Danielson, driller, Dawson. rr, „.,„,, NE l«ec 33 T 117 N., 

famp Release Town-hip W ell on lane ol . obi, M ,1 lao.-o„. l\ E. 1 sec. 33, 1. 
R 41 W Allthorily, J. M. Haul-res, driller, Montevideo 
Most of the altitudes are only approximately known. 



LAC QUI PARLE COUNTY. 



223 



CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — The Cretaceous rocks include (1) soft, uniform gray- 
blue shale, or "soapstone," (2) darker and harder shale, and (3) thin 
beds of unconsolidated white quartz sand. The shale predominates 
greatly, the only stratum of sand generally being a thin layer at the 
base of the series, even this being absent in some places. The hardest 
shale is in most places found next the sand. 

The Cretaceous rocks are present throughout most of the county, 
but generally not in the vicinity of Minnesota River, nor that of Lac 
qui Parle River as far upstream as Dawson, nor in the extreme south 
central part. Owing to their uneven upper and lower surfaces, the 
thickness varies, reaching in this county at least 225 feet. The sec- 
tions given in Plate XI represent the series in its typical development. 

Yield of water. — In drilling in this county any one of the following 
three conditions may be encountered: (1) The Cretaceous may be 
absent, the drill passing directly from the glacial drift into the granitic 
rocks; (2) shale or "soapstone" may alone be present, in which case 
the rocks will contribute no water; (3) the Cretaceous may be present 
and include a layer of sand, which, even if it is thin, may afford liberal 
supplies. Because the Cretaceous is so irregular in distribution and 
thickness it is impossible to predict the exact localities in which it will 
be found as a water-bearing deposit. All except two or three of the 
sections shown in Plate XI represent successful wells, most of them 
capable of yielding copiously. The following table gives the data in 
regard to these wells: 

Typical wells in the Cretaceous, Lac qui Parle County. a 



Owner and location. 



Depth to 


Thickness 




water- 


of water- 


Yield. 


bearing 


bearing 


stratum. 


stratum. 




Feet. 


Feet. 




207 


8 


Ample . . 


237 


(?) 


...do.... 


200 


Thin. 


...do.... 


325 


2 


...do 


150 


(?) 


...do 


148 


li 


100 gal- 
lons (?) 


185 


(?) 


Ample. . 


185 


(?) 


...do 


135 


£ 


Moderate 


142 


Thin. 


Ample.. 



Head. 



Hiram Graff, NW. i sec. 12, T. 119 N., R. 45 W 

Well 4 miles northeast of Madison 

Lars Roise, SE. i sec. 16, T. 118 N., R. 44 W.6 

L. P. Satre, NE.Jsec. 16, T. 117 N., R. 44 W 

J. J. Windingstaad, SE. \ sec. 14, T. 116 N., R. 44 W 
Dawson village well c 

E. A. Throndrud, SW. J sec. 8, T. 116 N., R. 43 W.. 

OleHusby, NE. } sec. 36, T. 117 N., R. 42 W 

N . Swenson, in village of Boyd 

A. Olerud, SW. | sec. 10, T. 116 N., R. 42 W 



Feet below 
surface. 
40 
40 
17 
60 
19 
16 

70 
25 
16 
22 



a The water from all these wells is soft. & Section not shown in PI. XI. 

c The analysis of this water is given on page 224. 

Head of the water. — The head is virtually the same as that of wells 
in the deeper drift zones, the water in most places rising nearly 
but not quite to the surface. The range in the wells given in the 



224 UNDEBGBOTJND WATEBS 01 SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

above bable is 16 to 70 feet below the surface. At Madison the Cre- 
taceous water rises to about 1,080 feel above sea level, at Dawson to 
1,050 feet, and at Boyd to 1,040 feet. 

Quality of tin water. — The water from the Cretaceous strata is soft 
but contains large quantities of sodium, the sulphate radicle, and 
chlorine. The following analysis is typical, except that in some locali- 
ties there is a much higher content of chlorine. At Madison, for 
example, the water is perceptibly saline. 

Mineral analysis of Cretaceous water. 

Parts per 
million. 

Silica (SiOa) 11. 4 

Iron and aluminum oxides (AbOj-r-FeoO;^ 3. 6 

Calcium (Ca) 10 

Magnesium (Mg) 7. 5 

Sodium and potassium (Na-{-K) 24S 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO s ) 4S3 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 136 

t 'hlorine (CD 27 

Nitrate radicle (NO s ) 

AKCHEAX ROCKS. 

Granite outcrops at a number of points in the valley of Minnesota 
River and in a small area 2^- miles south of the county line. It has 
also been discovered in drilling in nearly every part of the county. 
As its surface is not regular, it is found at different levels, but in most 
localities it lies at a depth of several hundred feet. It is nearest the 
present surface in the region bordering the Minnesota and in the 
eastern and south central sections of the county. At Dawson it has 
been encountered at a depth of 155 feet; near Marietta, at 345 feet; 
and at Milbank, S. Dak., at 283 feet. 

Where the granite was protected from glacial erosion by overlying 
formations the upper part is decayed ami is locally veneered by a 
white clay, which is often wrongly called "marl," but in fact is the 
leached decomposition product of the granite, though in some places 
it has been transported and redeposited by water. 

The granite is not water bearing, except that rarely an adequate 
supply is derived from gritty parts of the white clay or other decom- 
posed rock. In the well of John Hanson, the section of which is given 
in Plate XI, drilling was carried to a depth of 298 feet and entered 
solid granite without finding water. A charge of dynamite was then 
exploded, after which the well yielded generously. However, in 
most wells this procedure would not be successful. 

« East village well at Dawson. Sample collected August 29, 1907. Analyst, H. A. Whittaker, chemist 
Minnesota State Board of Health. 



LAG QUI PARLE COUNTY. 225 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Madison. — Madison has no public supply. The water zones may 
be classified as follows: 

1. Surficial yellow clay and sand, utilized chiefly by bored wells 
30 to 40 feet deep. At present this zone furnishes most of the supply. 
The water is hard. 

2. Seams of sand and gravel in the glacial drift, tapped by drilled 
wells commonly between 100 and 160 feet deep. This water is also 
hard. 

3. Strata of Cretaceous sand, reached by drilled wells at a depth of 
about 300 feet, but not yet used much. The water is soft but saline. 

Dav:son. — The underground water conditions are not the same in 
different parts of the village of Dawson. On the south side of the 
river the Cretaceous intervenes between the basal granite and the 
glacial drift, which is here less than 100 feet deep. At the bottom 
of the Cretaceous is a thin layer of white quartz sand, which affords 
soft water (PI. XI). On the north side of the river the drift appears 
to be fully 200 feet deep and to rest directly on the granite, the soft- 
water zone being absent. 

The waterworks, which were completed in 1908, are supplied by 
two wells south of the river, both of which are about 148 feet deep, and 
end in the soft-water stratum. The village authorities have reported 
that the two wells have been pumped at the rate of about 160 gallons 
a minute for twelve hours continuously. The water is soft but con- 
tains rather large quantities of alkali sulphates and chlorides, as is 
shown by the analysis given above. It will be employed large ly for 
all purposes, its softness recommending it for domestic use. Several 
other soft-water wells have been drilled on the south side, one of 
which supplies the creamery. Most of the private wells are bored and 
end in yellow clay or gravel at depths of 30 or 40 feet, yielding small 
quantities of hard water. There are a few drilled wells which tap the 
deeper layers of sand and gravel in the drift and also furnish hard 
water. The well at the mill is an example of this type. 

Boyd. — In the well of N. Swenson, the section of which is given in 
Plate XI, the Cretaceous shale is encountered at a depth of 80 feet, 
and the white clay, which presages granite, at 130 feet. At other 
points the glacial drift is known to be deeper. The Swenson well 
ends in a 6-inch layer of Cretaceous sand and provides a small 
quantity of soft water, while the well of A. Olerud, which is just 
north of the village and no doubt reaches the same horizon, affords 
a larger amount of the same kind of water. It has not been deter- 
mined how extensively soft water could be obtained. 
60920°— wsp 256—11 15 



226 UNDERGEOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 

The glacial drift here contains an uncommon proportion of sand and 
gravel (PI. XI). The 8-inch well which supplies the public water- 
works is 62 feet deep and draws from this source. The water rises 
within about 5 feet of the surface, and according to J. M. Haubris, 
the driller, of Montevideo, pumping at the rate of 80 gallons a minute 
for fifteen hours continuously lowered this level only 4 inches. The 
water is hard and is at present used almost exclusively for fire pro- 
tection. The mill is supplied by a well 120 feet deep, which yields an 
abundant supply of hard water. Most of the private wells are dug 
or bored into yellow clay or gravel and many are not more than 20 or 
30 feet deep. 

Bellingham. — The domestic supplies at Bellingham are derived 
chiefly from private wells 20 to 100 feet deep. The public water- 
works are also provided with a well, the water being used to a 
moderate extent for various purposes. The soft-water well of Mr. 
Hiram Graff, the description of which is given above, points to the 
possibility that soft water can be obtained in Bellingham. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

There are two principal types of farm wells — bored and drilled. 
The former are relatively shallow and many of them have not adequate 
or permanent supplies; the latter are deeper and generally more 
satisfactory and reliable. By far the greater number stop in glacial 
drift and yield hard water, but those which tap Cretaceous strata and 
afford soft water are widely distributed. Many farms now have 
hard water where a soft-water supply could be procured by drilling 
a little deeper. Two-inch wells terminating in the drift must be 
provided with screens, which are liable to become clogged in a few 
years. Wells of larger diameter are therefore more satisfactory and 
economical for farm' purposes. 

SUMMARY. 

As granite that is not water-bearing lies everywhere within a few 
hundred feet of the surface, deep drilling should never be undertaken 
in this county. After the white clay (which generally lies above the 
granite) has been entered the chances of finding water are very poor, 
and whenever hard granite is reached drilling should be discontinued. 

The two sources of underground water consist of (1) sand and gravel 
deposits interbedded with the bowlder clay and (2) layers of sand 
below shale ("soapstone"). The former nearly always yields plenty 
of water; the latter is more uncertain but frequently furnishes ade- 
quate supplies. The former contains hard water, the latter generally 
soft. 



LESUEUR COUNTY. 227 

In this region drilling for soft water is to be encouraged, for although 
there is no certainty that it will be found, the conditions in most parts 
of the county are favorable to success. Moreover, the experiment is 
not expensive. If soft water exists at all, it will be reached only a short 
distance below the hard-water horizons; and the "soapstone," 
through which it is necessary to pass, is very readily penetrated. 
If no soft water is found, the casing can usually be withdrawn. 

On the other hand, drilling for flowing wells in this county is to 
be discouraged. Although the water usually rises near the surface, 
no flows can be obtained except in a few small areas where they are 
derived from shallow layers. Hence all attempts to obtain flows by 
deep drilling must be considered a waste of money. 

LE SUEUR COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The upland surface of Lesueur County ranges in height from about 
900 feet above sea level near Minnesota River to nearly 1,100 feet in 
the central and eastern portions of the county. The general level of 
the plateau is broken by two irregular morainal ridges. One of these, 
standing 50 to 75 feet above the adjoining plain, extends along the 
eastern end of the county, lying for 1 to 5 miles of its width in 
Lesueur County and for the remainder in Rice County to the east. 
The other ridge, which is of similar character, is only 3 or 4 miles 
wide and extends from the southeast corner of the county diagonally 
across the southern townships to Minnesota River near St. Peter. 

Both the ridges and the general plateau surface, which is undulating 
or gently rolling, are dotted with lakes, some of which are several 
miles long. The stream valleys are those of the Minnesota and its 
tributaries and that of Cannon River in the southeastern corner. 
The Minnesota River valley lies 100 to 200 feet below the adjacent 
uplands, but the valleys of the remaining streams, except the lower 
portions of those entering the Minnesota, are not deep nor character- 
ized by steep sides. Along the east side of the Minnesota, within its 
flood plain, there is a strip of low alluvial deposits from one-eighth to 
one-half mile in width. Above this at Kasota and Ottawa are ter- 
races 1 or 2 miles wide and underlain by the Shakopee dolomite, 
described below. Near Kasota and Lesueur there are two of the 
so-called prairies, representing flat terrace surfaces standing 100 feet 
or more above Minnesota River. The Lesueur prairie is more than 
4 miles wide. Back of these terraces the land rises in a sort of bluff 
to the upland level, which is generally 50 to 100 feet higher. Along 
upper Cannon River there are gravel terraces formed by the streams 
during the glacial period. 



228 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Lesueur County is everywhere deeply drift covered except along 
the Minnesota Valley, and even here the rock projects through the 
alluvium. The surface deposits include alluvium, terrace sands, and 
unmodified glacial drift. 

The glacial drift consists of pebbly clay with bowlders and inter- 
mingled sandy or gravelly layers, the sand and gravel being especially 
abundant in the moraines. Between the morainal districts stratified 
outwash deposits have been laid down. The drift attains its greatest 
development on the uplands near Minnesota River, where it is locally 
more than 200 feet thick. Water is found in considerable amounts 
in the various sandy and gravelly layers and is available to wells of 
moderate depth, enough usually being obtained to supply large 
industries as well as households and farms. 

The alluvium consists of loamy sands and gravels deposited in the 
principal valleys, at some places to a depth of perhaps 100 feet or 
more. It usually affords supplies sufficient for domestic and farm 
purposes. 

The terrace sands and gravels are similar to those of the alluvium 
except that less silt is present. In the Minnesota Valley they lie 
about 100 feet above the present stream, having been deposited by 
the river flowing at the level indicated and left in their present situa- 
tion on terraces by the subsequent erosion of the stream. Their 
thickness is generally 20 to 30 feet; beneath them the wells penetrate 
the unmodified drift. Water is readily absorbed by the porous 
materials and is commonly abundant in the portions remote from the 
streams, affording supplies for domestic, farm, and small industrial 
purposes. Near the valleys the water escapes by percolation to the 
lower land and many wells fail to obtain the necessary supplies until 
the underlying rocks are reached. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Galena and Platteville limestones have not been seen at the 
surface but have been encountered in wells and probably underlie 
several square miles of the highland on the eastern border of the 
county. 

The St. Peter sandstone, like the overlying Galena and Platteville 
limestones, has not been seen at the surface but has been found in 
wells at a number of points, as at Elysian and Waterville. It is 
100 feet thick and more and underlies the Platteville and the drift 
in the southeastern portion of the county. The volume of water 
which it yields is generally considerable, being sufficient for farm and 
industrial purposes and for the public supplies of small cities. The 
water does not occur under great pressure. 

The Prairie du Chien group is represented by the pink to buff 
Shakopee and Oneota dolomites, which outcrop at Kasota and other 



LESUEUR COUNTY. 229 

points along the Minnesota Kiver and underlie the drift throughout 
the western half of the county. Their water supply is limited to the 
creviced portions and the interbedded lenses of sandstone. On the 
valley border, where the water escapes readily, the supply lies at a 
considerable depth. In such localities wells must go below drainage 
levels to procure adequate amounts of water. On the uplands the 
supplies are larger and are obtained at a higher level. The best 
supply probably comes from a sandy bed in the upper part of the 
group, supposed to be the representative of the New Richmond 
sandstone of the counties along the Mississippi. 

The Jordan sandstone, which is about 90 feet thick, outcrops along 
the Minnesota and dips eastward beneath the uplands underlying the 
entire county. It can be reached anywhere in the region by mod- 
erately deep wells and will usually afford supplies adequate for all 
purposes, the water being under sufficient pressure to cause it to enter 
the wells freely. 

Beneath the Jordan sandstone there are about 150 feet of shale and 
limestone, not water bearing, known as the St. Lawrence formation. 
Beneath these lies the Dresbach sandstone, a water-bearing bed 50 
to 100 feet thick and similar to the Jordan. Its yield, however, is 
usually no greater than that of the Jordan and there is therefore no 
advantage in drilling to it, unless the supplies of the Jordan should 
be locally exhausted by heavy withdrawals. Below the Dresbach 
there are several hundred feet of shales and water-bearing sandstone 
beds, below which lie, in turn, the red clastic series and the granite, 
neither of which is important as a water bearer. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — The wells of Lesueur County fall into five clearly defined 
groups: The first includes the shallow wells of the drift-covered 
uplands, the second the deep upland wells obtaining their supplies 
from the drift, the third the upland wells entering the rock, the 
fourth the shallow valley wells ending in alluvium, and the fifth 
the deep artesian wells of the valleys. 

The first group, comprising the shallow wells of the upland, are 
commonly of the dug or bored types. Water is obtained from 
sandy or gravelly layers of the drift, but the supplies reached are 
usually small and are liable to fail in dry seasons. The water, too, is 
not of the best quality. For these reasons the deeper drilled wells 
are to be preferred. The wells of the second group obtain their 
supplies from the water-bearing beds yielding good supplies, which are 
generally found before the rock is struck. The deeper upland wells 
comprising the third group enter the rock, obtaining their supplies 
from the St. Peter sandstone, the creviced and sandy portions of the 
Prairie du Chien group, or the Jordan sandstone. Ample supplies are 
generally obtained. In the valleys the shallow wells which make up 



230 UNDERGROUND WATERS OV SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

the fourth group arc commonly of the driven type and are sunk from 
20 to 40 feet into the alluvium. They are especially abundant along 
the Minnesota. The supplies are usually rather small and of unsatis- 
factory quality. For large supplies in the valleys recourse is had to 
deep-drilled wells (the fifth group) which penetrate to the Dresbach 
and underlying sandstones. From these water is obtained in large 
volumes and under sufficient head to lift it 75 feet above the river in 
places. 

Head of the (rater. — In view of the differences in surface altitude 
found in this county, the head relative to the surface must vary 
within comparatively wide limits. Ordinarily the shallow drift 
wells on the uplands find the ground-water level but a few feet below 
the surface, whereas the deeper drift supplies and the water from the 
rock formations stand at a lower level, the head usually becoming 
progressively lower as greater depths are reached. But in the 
Minnesota Valley, which is several hundred feet below the uplands, 
the water from the rock formations will rise above the surface without 
rising any higher above sea level than elsewhere in the county. In 
the city well at Lesueur, which is 668 feet deep, the water rises 18 
feet above the surface, or 77$ feet above sea level. In the well at 
Lesueur Center, 340 feet deep (extending 52 feet below the surface 
at Lesueur), the water rises within 180 feet of the surface, or 898 
feet above sea level. In other words, the water at Lesueur Center is 
lifted 00 feet above the level to which it will rise in the flowing well 
at Lesueur. 

Springs. — Springs are very numerous where the Minnesota and its 
tributaries have cut their valleys into the drift. The water of the 
drift escapes from the sandy layers at many points and affords sup- 
plies to numerous farms. The largest springs occur where the lime- 
stone rises above the valley level and outcrops in the bluffs. This 
rock serves to collect and concentrate the water from the overlying 
drift and thus affords a plane along which the water makes its way 
from the underground supplies to the surface. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Lesueur. — The 8-inch flowing well which furnishes the public 
supply for Lesueur is the deepest well in the county. It penetrates 
far into the Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales, as is shown 
by the following section: 

Well section at Lesuew. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Ft,t. 

Alluvium and drift 176 

St. Lawrence formation (shale and dolomite - ) 100 

Dresbach sandstone and underlying shale 392 



Feet. 

176 
276 

66S 



LESUEUR COUNTY. 231 

When this well is pumped at the rate of 400 gallons a minute the 
water is lowered 15 feet below the surface. About one-half the people 
use the public supply, and approximately 40,000 gallons is consumed 
daily. An analysis of the water is given in the table on page 232. 

Waterville. — Waterville has a system of public waterworks supplied 
from an 8-inch well 185 feet deep, which probably ends in glacial 
drift. About 10,000 gallons is consumed daily. 

Montgomery. — The glacial drift in the locality of Montgomery is 
about 175 feet thick and rests on strata of limestone and sandstone, 
which are penetrated by a few of the deepest wells. The following 
is the section of the well drilled in 1904 for the Minneapolis and St. 
Louis Railroad Company: 

Well section at Montgomery. 
[Authority, chief engineer Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad Company.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Ucpth. 



Clay and "hardpan" (glacial drift). 

Limestone (probably Oneota) 

Loose sandstone (probably Jordan). 
Hard sandstone (probably Jordan). . 



Feet. 

175 

27 

18 

32 



Feet. 
175 
202 
220 
252 



The public supply is derived from a 10-inch well which is 213 feet 
deep. At least one-half of the people use the water, and about 
25,000 gallons is consumed daily. Several analyses of water from 
this village are given in the table. 

Lesueur Center. — The well that supplies the public waterworks of 
Lesueur Center is 340 feet deep*. Only a small amount of water is 
used, as most of the people depend on private wells. 

Elysian. — The village of Elysian has a well 287 feet deep, which 
apparently taps the St. Peter sandstone. Only a small proportion 
of the people use the public supply. 

Kilkenny. — The waterworks at Kilkenny are supplied from a well 
250 feet deep, which derives its water from the St. Peter sandstone. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Underlying this region are several sandstones, all of which yield 
water generously. In the valley of the Minnesota they give rise to 
flowing wells, but on the uplands no flows can be obtained from rock 
formations at any depth, for the head of water is lowest in the deep 
wells. However, the water from the sandstones is not so highly 
charged with iron as that from the drift and in this respect is dis- 
tinctly preferable. 



232 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Mineral analyses of water in Lesueur Count v. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet.. 

Silica (SiO«) 

Caleium*(Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

B icarbonate radicle 

(HCCM.. 

Sulphate radicle (SOO-. 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



Glacial drift. 



19 
50 
23 

135 

44S 
61 
3.7 

618 



25 
80 

30 

7.6 

340 

52 

1.3 
3ft? 



1S5(?) 
25 
54 
31 

9.6 

321 
11 
3.4 
294 



Fragile!*] rock formations. 



195 

4.S 
70 
14 

61 

287 

73 

14 

487 



344 
10 
110 
36 

42 

468 
64 
2.7 
578 



340(?) 



518 
67 



512 



273 



51 S 
15 
9.1 

624 



273 



59 



510 
85 

ti.O 
531 



273 
168 " 



1.2 

453 
4S 

1.6 
442 



315 



■!•) 



437 
18 
1.7 

369 



140 
6.6 
114 
40 

90 

545 

9S 

70 
687 



668 
7.8 
55 

21 

42 

270 

4S 
29 

3(16 



November, 1901. 
December, 1901. 
1892. 



1. Follert's spring in sec. 14, T. Ill N., R. 26 W, 1902. 

2. Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway well at Lesueur. 1901. 

3. City well at Waterville. September, 1S97. 

4. Montgomery Brewing Company well at Montgomery. May, 1905. 

5. Well at the'New Prague Flouring Mill at New Prague. November, 1906. 

6. City well at Montgomery. December, 1901. 

7. Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad well at Montgomery. 

8. Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad well at Montgomery. 

9. Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad well at Montgomery. 

10. H. H. Flower's creamery well at Cleveland. 1901. 

11. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Kasota. 

12. City well at Lesueur. 1901. 

Analysis 1 was made by J. P. Magnusson; analysis 3 by C. W. Drew; analysis 4 by the School of Brew- 
ers; and analysis 5 by EL S. Spaulding. Analyses 2, 11, and 12 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chem- 
ist Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company; analyses 6 and 10 by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company; and analyses 7, S, and 9" by the Minneapolis and St. Louis 
Railroad Company. 

LINCOLN COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Lincoln is a prairie county, most of which lies on the coteau more 
than 1,700 feet above sea level. In the northeast, however, the 
surface slopes down to the lowland plain bordering the Minnesota 
Valley, and in this slope descends about 500 feet within a few miles 
(Pis. I and V). The coteau abounds in lakes and swamps and has 
a very imperfect drainage, but the slope has become incised by 
numerous ravines, some of which are deep enough to be fed by 
permanent springs. These ravines will gradually be cut down and 
their heads will slowly encroach on the upland prairie, until in the 
distant future all of Lincoln County will be dissected into hills and 
valleys, and the lakes and swamps will have disappeared. 

The county is crossed by two morainal ridges that rim parallel to 
each other with a northwest-southeast trend (PI. II). Both can be 
traced northwestward into South Dakota and southeastward through 
Minnesota into Iowa. They stand higher than the surrounding 
prairie and have a more irregular relief. The crest of the outer (or 
more southwesterly) ridge rises nearly 2,000 feet above sea level. 
It is interrupted by several remarkable gaps evidently formed by 
streams in the last glacial epoch. a 



aTJpham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1SS2, p. 603. 



LINCOLN COUNTY. 233 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 
DESCRIPTION. 

On the coteau the glacial drift is Very thick, but it thins out in the 
direction of the lowland plain, and in the extreme northeastern corner 
the North Branch of Yellow Medicine River has cut through it and 
exposed a sandstone formation. 

As has just been stated, the coteau forms a relatively even plateau 
about 500 feet above the lowland plain, the slope from one level to 
the other being well denned and relatively abrupt. The large fea- 
tures of the topography (the coteau, slope, and lowland plain) are 
the same as they were at the close of the Pleistocene epoch, only 
minor characters be.ng due to more recent erosion. The question at 
once arises: To what extent is the coteau of preglacial origin, and 
in how far has it been formed by deposits of drift ? 

It has been the general opinion that in this region the older forma- 
tions lie at a higher level than farther northeast and that the greater 
thickness of the drift accounts for only a small part of the 500 feet 
of increase in altitude. This was the view of the Minnesota Survey 
geologists, Warren Upham's statement on this point being as follows: 

Till, or the unstratified bowlder clay, deposited by the ice of the glacial period, 
forms a thick sheet, probably averaging a hundred feet in depth upon the surface of 
all this district (Lyon, Lincoln, and Yellow Medicine counties). * * * 

Though no exposures of strata older than the drift have been found upon the Coteau 
des Prairies in this district and northwestward, the underlying formations are believed 
to rise here much higher than on either side, in the basins of the Minnesota, Big 
Sioux, and James rivers. The altitude of the coteau is doubtless thus caused by the 
greater height of the formations, probably Cretaceous, upon which these drift deposits 
lie, rather than by extraordinary thickness of the drift beyond that which it com- 
monly has throughout southwestern Minnesota. The depth that is added to the 
general drift sheet by the accumulations of the terminal moraines does not appear 
to average more than 50 to 75 feet. Upon the Coteau des Prairies the knolls and 
hillocks of the morainic belts rise 20 to 50 and rarely 75 or 100 feet above the adjoin- 
ing hollows; and the thickness which they add to the drift sheet appears to be from 
50 to 150 feet. 

At the time this statement was made there were no deep wells in 
the region, the deepest one reported in Lincoln County being 94 feet. 
Hence there was no direct evidence as to the thickness of the drift. 
Knowledge is still very imperfect, but a number of rather deep 
drillings made in recent years indicate that Mr. Upham's statement 
will require some modification. It still seems altogether probable 
that the elevation of the coteau is to large extent caused by older 
formations (though as yet there is no proof of this in Minnesota); 
but the well data at hand show that the average thickness of the 
drift is here much greater than on the adjacent lowland plain, and 

a Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 601. 



234 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

that so far as this county is concerned a considerable part of the 
higher elevation results from this greater thickness. The well 
records also seem to indicate that the present margin of the coteau 
is determined by the deposits of drift, and that locally the underlying 
formations are no higher above sea level beneath the coteau than 
beneath the lowland plain. 

The following table, showing the altitude of the top of the Creta- 
ceous (or the bottom of the drift "i on the plain near the foot of the 
coteau. is introduced here for comparison with similar data to be 
given for Lincoln County. 

Altitude above sea level of the surface upon which the glacial dr(ft rests, for specified points, 

at the foot of the coteau. 

Feet. 

Tracy 1. 235 

Amiret 1. 200 

Marshall 1. 125 

Ghent - 1. 200 

Minneota 1. 155 

Canby 1. 140 

All the drillers at Marshall assert positively that they have never 
encountered anything on the coteau or the upper part of the slope but 
sand, gravel, and ordinary pebbly clay, though on the lower part of 
the slope and on the lowland plain they constantly drill into "soap- 
stone," which is the name they apply to the Cretaceous shale. They 
all differentiate between "soapstone" and the blue clay of the drift 
which contains pebbles and bowlders. Near Russell (Lyon County), 
on the farm of T. Thompson. XE. \ sec. 30. T. 110 X., R. 42 TV., the 
following well section is reported: 

Well section near Russell {Lyon County^. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Feet. Fa>. 

Gravel, sand, and blue elav 2S0 ?>0 

Blueelay 80 360 

Sandv blue elav 15 ' 375 

Sand! ". 15 390 



This weU was sunk by Adair Brothers, of Marshall, who drill 
chiefly in the Cretaceous on the lowland plain, but who report that 
nothing in the nature of "soapstone'' was reached at this place. If 
the entire section consists of glacial drift , the surface of the underlying 
formations is here less than 1.200 feet above sea level. 

At Tyler the following section is reported for the old village well, the 
thickness of the various beds being only approximately correct. 



LINCOLN COUNTY. 235 

Well section at Tyler. 



■ Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


i Feet. 
1 40 


Feet. 
40 


70 


110 


20 


130 


100 


230 


100 


330 


170 


500 


1 5 


505 


45 


550 


1 8 


558 



Yellow clay 

Blue clay 

Quicksand 

Blue clay 

Yellow clay and gravel. 

Blue clay 

Hard layer 

Blue clay 

Gravel..' 



This well was drilled by Oxholm Brothers, of Arco, who also sunk 
the well at the former "ounty poor farm (4 miles north and 1 mile east 
of Lake Benton) to a depth of 560 feet and several other wells in the 
county to depths of about 500 feet. These men have drilled in shale 
in South Dakota and hence distinguish between that material and the 
blue clay of the glacial drift. They state emphatically that they have 
never encountered shale in Lincoln County. They also report bowl- 
ders, generally more or less decayed, between depths of 300 and 500 
feet. If the above section consists entirely of drift, the surface of the 
underlying formations is here not more than 1,190 feet above sea 
level. 

The railway well at Tyler reached a depth of 575 feet. In reporting 
this well the representative of the railway company states that " all 
material penetrated is characteristic glacial deposit. " If this is true, 
the older formations at this point do not rise more than 1,175 feet 
above the sea. 

The following section is given for the unsuccessful well at Ivanhoe : 

Well section at Ivanhoe. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Yellow clay 

Red sand 

Blue clay 

Yellow clay 

Sand 

Shale 

Blue clay (contains pebbles and bowlders). 

Conglomerate 

Soil ("perfectly black") 

Yellow clay 

Blue clay (entered) 



53 
23 
29 

150 
93 
10 
77 
1 
3 
11 
37 



Feet. 
53 
76 
105 
255 
348 
358 
435 
436 
439 
450 
487 



If the beds here passed through are all drift, as they appear to be, 
the underlying surface is not more than 1,260 feet above sea level. 

The testimony of all the drillers in Lincoln County is to the effect 
that the glacial drift is very deep and that the Cretaceous shale or 
"soapstone" is never penetrated. Three other deep wells have been 



236 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

drilled in the county — at Ivanhoe, Tyler, and Lake Benton — but no 
reliable section could be obtained. In the western part of Murray 
County the drift is also reported to be very thick, but no drillings were 
saved from the deep wells. At Wilmont, in Nobles County, a coarse 
gravel containing pebbles that show glacial striae occurs at a depth of 
348 feet. 

It is notable that the valley of Minnesota River, the margin of the 
coteau, and the three morainal ridges (two in this county and one 
farther northeast) are all parallel. It seems probable (1) that before 
the Pleistocene epoch the territory now occupied by the coteau was in 
general a relatively high area; (2) that this preexisting highland modi- 
fied the course of the ice tongue of the last and probably those of 
earlier glacial invasions; (3) that this ice tongue acted much like a 
valley glacier, scouring its channel and forming thick deposits at its 
margin; and (4) that the thickest accumulation of drift occurs near 
the edge of the coteau and in preexisting valleys of the region. 

On the west side of the Coteau des Prairies (in South Dakota) where 
the upland descends to the so-called James River valley, the topo- 
graphic features of coteau, slope, and "valley" are strikingly similar 
to those on the eastern, and the history of the two sides is probably 
similar. On both sides ice tongues are believed to have acted in 
much the same way and to have been followed by temporary lakes 
which smoothed out the lowland surface. On both sides also post- 
glacial erosion has been most active on the slope. 

YIELD OF WATER. 

The sand and gravel deposits of the glacial drift are usually water 
bearing. The 6-inch village well at Tyler, which is 230 feet deep, has 
been tested at 35 gallons a minute, and the 6-inch railway well at the 
same place, which is 575 feet deep, at 88 gallons a minute. Generally, 
however, supplies adequate for ordinary purposes can be procured at 
more moderate depths. 

HEAD OF THE WATER. 

Flowing wells are found in the valley of North Branch of Yellow 
Medicine River in the northeastern corner of the county. It is pos- 
sible that an occasional flow may also be obtained in other localities 
near the foot of the moraines, but there is no important artesian 
basin. As a rule, the water stands near the surface in shallow wells 
and far below the surface in the deepest wells. However, in the 
deep railway well at Lake Benton, which is situated in a gap in the 
outer moraine, the water rose nearly to the surface. 

QTTALITY OF THE WATER. 

The water from the glacial drift is all hard. Most of it is extremely 
hard and highly mineralized and is very poor for boiler purposes. 
The analyses in the accompanying table seem to show that the least 



LINCOLN COUNTY. 237 

mineralized water is that from very shallow wells, and this is prob- 
ably true, though the samples represented are too localized to war- 
rant any general conclusion. The water from the deep well drilled 
at Lake Benton for the railway company (analysis 10 in the table, 
on p. 239) is also less mineralized than the average drift water, but 
nothing is known as to the source of this sample except the depth 
of the well. 

• UNDERLYING FORMATIONS. 

Description. — Sandstone supposed to belong to the Cretaceous 
system is exposed in the valley of North Branch of Yellow Medicine 
River, a and other outcrops occur in Lyon County. This is probably 
the same sandstone that lies above the principal shale or "soap- 
stone" beds at Canby, Minneota, and Marshall. The Cretaceous of 
Lyon County, known to attain a thickness of nearly 500 feet, is 
believed to extend below the drift of Lincoln County and to be con- 
tinuous with the thicker formations farther west. (See the discus- 
sion of the Cretaceous in the report on Lyon County.) About 7 
miles west of Minneota there lies beneath the drift a 40-foot bed of 
limestone which, if report is to be trusted, probably lies stratigraphic- 
ally above the outcropping sandstone. 

In the vicinity of Elkton, 1 mile west of the state line, the Sioux 
quartzite has been encountered at depths of 200 feet and less, and 
in one well in the southeastern part of this county (sec. 30, T. 109 
N., R. 44 W.) hard rock that may belong to the same formation was 
struck at a depth of 450 .feet. In the north the Archean granite 
occurs immediately below the Cretaceous. 

Yield, head, and quality of water. — As very little is known from 
direct evidence in regard to the Cretaceous of this region, the reader 
is referred to the report on Lyon County. Throughout most of 
Lincoln County the water from the sandstones would remain at 
depths of several hundred feet. In the northeastern corner the 
altitude is low enough so that it would rise nearly or quite to the 
surface, but the principal water-bearing bed, elsewhere in the county, 
is not present here, the granite being found in its stead. In general, 
the Cretaceous water is even harder than that from the drift, but 
certain soft-water zones have been discovered in Lyon and other 
counties. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Lake Benton. — The outer moraine crosses the region about Lake 
Benton, and the village lies in a unique gap in the moraine, caused 
by a stream that once flowed southwest ward. The glacial drift is 
known to be very thick. The well which furnishes the public supply 

aUpham, Warren, Final Rept. Geo. 1 , and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1S82, pp. 598 and 599. 



238 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

is L2 feet in diameter ami was sunk to a depth of 10 foot, chiefly 
through sand ami gravel. It is cased with brick ami admits water 

at all levels. In the summer of 1907 the lake had risen almost to 
the top of the well, which was nearly full of water. The well has 
been tested at 400 gallons a minute ami is reported to yield an ample 
supply even in dry years. The water is hard, as is shown by the 
analysis given in the table below. It is used by about 250 people, 
the average daily consumption amounting approximately to 7,500 
gallons. Most of the private wells are of the dug or bored variety 
ami are shallow, but there are also a few drilled wells, most of which 
are less than 100 feet deep. 

Tiller. — The glacial drift is very thick near Tyler, as is shown by 
the sect ion on page 235. The public supply is derived from a well 6 
and S inches in diameter and 230 feet deep, which has a brass screen 
at the bottom. The water rises within 70 feet of the surface, or 
1,680 feet above sea level. When the well was completed, in 1906, 
it was pumped for about twenty hours continuously at the rate of 
35 gallons a minute. The water is very hard and contains much 
iron, which is oxidized and precipitated when exposed to the air. 
It is utilized for various purposes, but seems to be avoided for drink- 
ing and cooking because of its iron content. Shallow private wells 
are in general use. The mill and creamery are supplied from drilled 
wells that yield very hard .water. An analysis of the water from the 
creamery well is given in the table. 

IvanTboe. — The public waterworks in the village of Ivanhoe are 
supplied from a 10-inch well that is finished with a screen at a depth 
of 315 feet, the water being reported to rise within about 100 feet 
o( the surface. Most of the private wells are sunk into yellow clay 
and are shallow, but there are a few deeper drilled wells. The strati- 
graphic section, to a depth of 4S7 feet, has boon given on page 235. 

Hendricks. — The well that furnishes the public supply for Hen- 
dricks is 10 feet in diameter ami 10 feet deep and ends in sand and 
gravel below a layer of clay. Perhaps 75 people use the water, ami 
on an average 3,000 gallons is consumed daily. Most of the inhabit- 
ants rely on shallow private wells. 

I'AKM WATER SUPPLIES. 

There are two principal types of farm wells — bored and drilled. 
The former are shallow and terminate in yellow clay or are some- 
what deeper and reach sand and gravel beds beneath a layer of blue 
clay. Their depth averages less than 50 feet and is rarely as much 
as 100 feet. Wells of the latter type range from less than 100 feet 
to nearly 500 feet in depth, the great majority being between 100 
and 200 feet. The most satisfactory type for farm purposes is the 
0-inch drilled well. 



LINCOLN COUNTY. 



239 



SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Throughout most of the county strata of sandstone, which would 
afford large quantities of water, are believed to exist, but they lie at 
considerable depths and the water would generally stand several 
hundred feet below the surface and be extremely hard. Soft-water 
zones containing adequate supplies may occur, but they are easily 
passed through unnoticed in drilling. If any further prospecting 
for soft water is undertaken, the careful methods described in the 
chapter on problems relating to wells (pp. 95-96) must be followed or 
failure will be almost certain. The sandstone may give place to 
granite in the northern and to quartzite in the extreme southern 
part of the county. In the northeastern corner, where the altitude 
is low, such sandstone strata as do exist will be encountered rela- 
tively near the surface, and the water will rise almost or quite to the 
surface. 

The Sioux quartzite should not be penetrated unless no other 
source of supply is available. The granite should never be entered, 
because it is not water bearing. 

Mineral analyses of water in Lincoln County. 
[Analysis in parts per million.] 



Depth feet 

Diameter of well inches 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe203 4 

AlaOa) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium ( Mg; 

Sodium and potassium (Na+Kj... 

Bicarbonate radicle ( HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle ( S0 4 ; 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



Surface sand and gravel. 



10 

21 

45 

4.8 

99 

27 

54 

216 

284 

3 

623 



16 

144 
1 

26 

140 

45 

30 

403 

286 

2 

735 



20 
2 
28 

2.06 
186 

55 

31 
534 
279 

20 
8&3 



207 

63 

34 

403 

469 

20 

1,016 



Glacial drift. 



24 24 

72 I 1 , 

29 21 



1.6 
180 

58 

32 
573 
255 

16 
855 



24 

130 

30 

6 

422 

99 

9 

527 



140 
2 
26 



407 

97 

238 

956 

1,091 

7 

2,337 



575 

10,8,6 
42 

5 

318 

127 

309 

941 

1,147 

15 

2,427 



585 
2 
31 

3.5 
311 
103 
198 
724 
976 
15 
1,994 



(?) 



10. 



27 

1.7 
121 
47 
25 
410 
198 
6 
628 



1. Well on the shore of Lake Hendricks, at Hendricks. June 22, 1900. 

2. Village well at Lake Benton. December 8, 1893. 

3. A test well at Lake Benton. June, 1891. 

4. A driven well at Lake Benton. November 29, 1898. 

5. Well at Lake Benton. July 20, 1891. 

6. A driven well at Lake Benton. June 10, 1902. 

7. Creamery well at Tyler. January 31, 1900. 

8. Railway well at Tyler. January 22, 1901. 

9. Railway well at Tyler. December, 1899. 

10. Railway well at Lake Benton. June 30, 1X92. 

The above analyses were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
Company. 



240 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

LYON COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The topographic features of Lyon County are unique. As the map 
shows (PL I), the surface descends from about 1,750 feet above sea 
level in the southwestern corner to about 1,075 feet in the north- 
eastern corner. But the grade is not uniform. As far as the 1,500- 
foot contour the descent is slight, thence for some miles it is relatively 
rapid, and below the 1,200-foot contour it is very gradual. The 
county is thus divided into three physiographic provinces — the 
upland plain, the slope, and the lowland plain. 

The upland plain occupies the southwestern corner and forms a 
part of the Coteau des Prairies, which extends westward into South 
Dakota. It is crossed by a moraine, and in some parts is hilly, though 
generally only gently undulating. It is poorly drained and contains 
many lakes and swamps. The only stream of any consequence is 
Redwood River, which rises in Pipestone County and flows north- 
eastward across Lyon County. 

The slope from the upland to the lowland is not precipitous. It is 
not a cliff or escarpment, but only a gradual descent. Nevertheless, 
the gradient is sufficient for the surface waters to erode actively, and 
consequently this tract has become dissected by numerous ravines 
and valleys, all of which run northeastward toward the lowland plain. 
The largest have been cut deep enough to tap the upper zones of 
underground water and are now fed by springs. Extensive stream 
capture is destined to take place in this region before the drainage, 
which is still extremely youthful, shall have become adjusted. 

The lowland plain of this county is a part of a much larger expanse 
lying between the coteau and Minnesota River. It is very flat and 
quite featureless. It is crossed by Yellow Medicine, Redwood, and 
Cottonwood rivers, which descend from the coteau and here occupy 
shallow valleys with but few tributaries, thus leaving the general 
surface of the plain poorly drained. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift, which is a mixture of clay, sand, 
and gravel, ranges in thickness from a thin veneer to perhaps more 
than 400 feet. It is most attenuated in that portion of the lowland 
plain that lies next the slope from the coteau. Here the average 
depth is less than 50 feet, and in a few places streams have cut down 
to the underlying formations. Toward the northeast it thickens grad- 
ually, in some localities on the lowland plain attaining a depth of 100 
feet ; toward the southwest it thickens greatly and rapidly, within a 
few miles reaching a depth of several hundred feet. 



LYON COUNTY. 241 

At Taunton, Minneota, Ghent, Marshall, Heckman, and Dudley 
the average thickness is less than 50 feet ; in the country surrounding 
Green Valley it is between 50 and 100 feet; in the locality of Cotton- 
wood, about 100 feet; at Amiret, about 80 feet; and in the vicinity of 
Tracy, between 100 and 200 feet. Three miles northeast of Lynd 
(SW. i sec. 19, T. Ill N., E. 41 W.) underlying shale was found at 155 
feet; but wells in this village reach 125 feet, and a well near Russell 
390 feet, apparently without passing out of the drift, the average 
thickness of which on the coteau is probably more than 300 feet. 
(PI. II.) 

Yield of water. — On the lowland plain in the northeastern part of 
the county the drift is too thin to be a reliable source of water, and in 
some localities it contains no water-bearing bed; but on the upland 
plain in the southwest it is deep and includes thick seams of sand and 
gravel, which afford abundant and permanent supplies. 

Head of the water. — There are a few small areas of flowing wells 
supplied from the drift. Many of these wells are just outside of the 
Cretaceous flowing area and are located in the valleys on the slope 
(PL IV). Generally, however, these valleys have been cut so deep 
that they have tapped the water-bearing seams and allow the water 
to escape through springs, thus destroying artesian conditions. 

Flowing wells from the drift have been reported as follows: (1) A 
group of very shallow wells about 5 miles southwest of Minneota, on 
sees. 16, 17, 20, and 21 in T. 112 N., R. 43 W.; (2) a well 66 feet deep 
on the farm of H. Kuhling, NE. £ sec. 6, T. Ill N., R. 42 W.; (3) a 
well 89 feet deep on the farm of Sobinskie Brothers, SW. J sec. 36, 
T. 110 N., R. 41 W.; and (4) a well 85 feet deep 3 miles north of 
Tracy, on the farm of O. Pierce, NE. { sec. 2, T. 109 N., R. 40 W. 
No doubt there are other small areas in which flows could be obtained. 

Quality of the water. — The water is very hard and very poorly 
adapted for use in boilers. In some wells, especially on the lowland 
plain, it is too rich in magnesium, alkali, and sulphates to be satisfac- 
tory for drinking and culinary purposes. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 
DESCRIPTION. 

The series of shales and sandstones shown in Plate XII has been 
penetrated in an indefinite number of wells in all parts of Lyon County 
except the southwestern, where the drift is very deep. Although 
there is no direct fossil evidence as to the age of these rocks, there 
can be no reasonable doubt that they constitute the eastward exten- 
sion of the Upper Cretaceous of South Dakota. Their geographic 
position and lithologic character and the head and mineral composi- 
tion of the water all indicate this. 
60920°— wsp 256—11 16 



242 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

As far as is known the upper surface of the Cretaceous has no great 
irregularities. A line drawn from the southeastern to the north- 
western corner of the county would represent approximately its 
1,200-foot contour. Thus at Tracy its altitude is about 1,235 feet; 
atAmiret, 1,200 feet; at Marshall, 1,125 feet; and at Minneota, 1,155 
feet. From the 1,200-foot contour it descends gradually toward the 
northeast, reaching about 1,000 feet in the northeastern corner. Less 
is known about the Cretaceous surface in the southwestern part, but 
it certainly does not rise as much as the present surface of the land. 
In the sections given in Plate XII the Cretaceous ranges from 125 
to 455 feet in thickness, but the extreme range is somewhat greater. 
In the northern and especially the northeastern part its thickness 
is least, the granite coming near the surface; in the central and south- 
ern parts it is commonly penetrated to depths of 350 to 450 feet, and 
the bottom is rarely reached. It probably thickens westward be- 
neath the coteau. 

There is so much monotony in the sections of the Cretaceous that 
it is not possible to correlate them with certainty from well records. 
The stratigraphic succession at Marshall has been determined most 
accurately, and many well sections within 5 or 10 miles of that city, 
especially to the east and southeast, have been correlated with it. 
The main artesian zone (B in PL XII) and the principal soft-water 
zone (D in PL XII) are well recognized there. 

YIELD OF WATER. 

In the vicinity of Marshall the following water-bearing strata are 
found: (1) The shallow zone. The section for the first 100 feet 
below the surface is not constant, but there are several sandy layers 
which yield abundantly. (2) The soft-water zone. This occurs at a 
depth of 250 feet and supplies a number of wells, but its yield is so 
small that were it not for the relative softness of the water, it would 
not be utilized at all. The soft-water well at the new mill will fur- 
nish about 2 gallons a minute with the pump at the bottom of the 
well. (3) The 300-foot zone. In Marshall a hard impervious layer is 
encountered at about 300 feet below the surface, or 50 feet below 
the soft-water zone ; but 1 mile east of the city, on the farm of C. H. 
Middleton (SE. \ sec. 3, T. Ill N., P. 41 W.), there was found asso- 
ciated with this hard layer a 6-foot sandstone stratum which gives 
rise to a flow of 2 or 3 gallons a minute, and near by, on the farm of 
C. E. Overstrud (NE. \ sec. 3, T. Ill N., R. 41 W.), the same hard 
layer and artesian sandstone stratum were penetrated. These wells 
show that a layer at one place water bearing may at no great distance 
be quite impervious, and that small amounts of water are commonly 
associated with the hard layers so frequently encountered in drilling 



LYON COUNTY. 243 

through the soft shale. (4) The main artesian zone. About 400 
feet below the surface occurs the sandstone that supplies most of the 
flowing wells of the vicinity. In Marshall it furnishes sufficient 
amounts of water for all ordinary purposes, but at some distance east, 
southeast, and northeast its yield is very small. (5) The deep zone. 
The new mill well extends to a depth of 490 feet and is evidently sup- 
plied from a lower source than the other artesian wells in the city. 
It is reported to flow 600 gallons a minute from a 6-inch pipe. 

At Minneota the Cretaceous contains the following water-bearing 
beds: (1) Several layers of sand and sandstone between the depths 
of 25 and 110 feet. These are probably to be correlated with the 
shallow zone at Marshall. They yield abundantly. The 6-inch 
village well, which is supplied from this source, has been pumped con- 
tinuously for twenty hours at the rate of 30 gallons a minute. (2) 
A stratum of sand at a depth of 250 feet. This would probably fur- 
nish considerable water, though the sand is fine and incoherent. 

In the region between Minneota and Ghent the same two zones 
occur that are given above for Minneota. Near Cottonwood and 
farther west water is found at a depth of about 100 feet and at 150 
feet or more. In the entire northern part of the county the main 
artesian sandstone is absent and the granite exists in its place. 

East of Marshall, in the vicinity of Dudley, there are two princi- 
pal sources from which the wells draw their water — one at depths 
ranging from about 160 to 230 feet, and the other at an average 
depth of about 400 feet. The former corresponds, in a general way, 
to the soft-water beds at Marshall, and the latter to the main artesian 
sandstone of that locality. The supply from the former varies, but 
is usually small; the latter yields copiously in the district west and 
south of Dudley, but fails entirely farther east and north where the 
granite is nearer the surface. The shallow deposits of sand found at 
Marshall do not seem to be represented here. 

Partial list of ivells that end in the upper water zone in the vicinity of Dudley, showing 

owner, location, and depth. 

Feet. 

J. G. Schultz, SW. I sec. 1, T. Ill N., R. 41 W 230 

T. L. Wolf, NE. \ sec. 12, T. Ill N., R. 41 W 220 

E. De Clerk, NE. \ sec. 6, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 212 

Margaret Lenerds, \ sec. 6, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 190 

Chris. Rock, NW. \ sec. 5, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 170 

C. Schoel, NW. \ sec. 4, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 160 

B. Snyder, SW. \ sec. 4, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 178 

W. E. Heagle, NW. \ sec. 9, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 190 

F. W. Ludwig, SW. \ sec. 3, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 166 

H. Snyder, NW. \ sec. 14, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 190 

Benj. Christianson, NE. \ sec. 14, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 162 

R. Castle, SW. \ sec. 14, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 190 



244 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Partial list of wells that end in the lower water zone in the vicinity of Dudley, showing 

owner, location, and depth. 

Feet. 

W. H. Baughman, SE. \ sec. 12, T. Ill N., R. 41 W 405 

Watt Fuller, SW. \ sec. 13, T. Ill N., R. 41 W 403 

C. W. Snyder, NW. \ sec. 29, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 435 

J. Ciesielski, NW. \ sec. 28, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 425 

E. C. Kochrane, SE. \ sec. 15, T. Ill N., R. 40 W 356 

J. F.Fischer, NE. J sec. 22, T. Ill N., R. 40 W.a 345 

Near Amiret and in the region east and northeast of that village 
there are numerous wells ranging from less than 400 to more than 
500 feet in depth, and a large proportion of these yield generously. 
The strata in which they end apparently correspond, in a general wa}-, 
to the lower artesian sandstones at Marshall, the granite being here 
deeply buried. At Tracy the best water-bearing bed exists 600 feet 
below the surface. The 6-inch city well, which extends to this 
depth, has been pumped for fifteen hours continuously at the rate of 
50 gallons a minute. 

From the data that have been given, the following provisional 
correlation of the water-bearing members of the Cretaceous can be 
made: 

(1) Shallow zones — represented by the sandy beds generally less 
than 100 feet below the surface in the vicinities of Marshall, Ghent, 
Minneota, Cottonwood, etc. 

(2) Intermediate zones — represented by the 250-foot and 300-foot 
strata in the locality of Marshall, the 250-foot sand layer in the region 
about Ghent and Minneota, and the upper sources in the vicinity 
of Dudley. 

(3) Deep zones — represented by the lower sandstones in the terri- 
tory including Marshall, Dudley, Amiret, and Tracy. 

HEAD OF THE WATER. 

The area in which the Cretaceous gives rise to flowing wells lies 
on the lower portion of the slope from the coteau and on adjacent 
parts of the lowland plain. It is 6 to 8 miles wide and extends from 
the vicinity of Ghent southeastward into Redwood County (PI. IV). 
With few exceptions, only the deep zones produce flows. 

The southwestern margin of the area crosses Lynd and Sodus town- 
ships (T. Ill N., R. 42 W., and T. 110 N., R. 41 W.) in a direction 
nearly due southeast, and then turns more nearly eastward and crosses 
the southern part of Amiret Township (T. 110 N., R. 40 W.). It 
lies between the 1,200-foot and 1,300-foot contours. Northwest of 
Amiret it nearly coincides with the latter, but as it is followed south- 
eastward it gradually descends, leaving the county at an altitude of 
about 1,250 feet above sea level, and getting down almost to 1,200 
feet at Walnut Grove, 6 miles east of the county line. In the F. 
Mellenthine well, 1 mile south and 6 miles west of Marshall (SW. \ 

o The section of this well is given in PI. XII. 




GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN LYON AND WESTERN 
By O. E. Meinzer. 



Vicinity of Cottonwood. — Generalized for the vicinity of Cottonwood. The section 

is .nllli ulist different lit (I i ffereill localities. 

Canhy (Yellow Medicine Comity). — Deep well drilled lor the villaee; record pre- 
served by villain' authorities. . 

Mioneola.— The upper 111) feet is seuer.ili7.ed. 'I he section below that depth i- 
fchat oi the Bowing well belonging to H. A. Rush, as reported by W. A. Crowe, the 
original 



NearGhent — Well Smiles norl 
T. 112 N.. It. 42 W. The altrti 
from Adair Brothers, drillers. Ma 

Marahall.— Generalized from i 
Wheeler, O. W. Martin, and Will 

hash i penetrated only in thee 

The section of the old 



weel of Ghent, on farm of J. DeCock.NW ! sec. 7, 

le is only approximately known. Data obtained 

ball. 

dividual sections given by Adair Brothers, S. P 

m MoColgan, drillers at Marshall. The last 75 feet 

wuiill well, and no accurate data could he obtained. 

as reported by J. E. Todd in Water-Supply Pape 



Theseelinn of Iheold null veil was r.-;.cr: -1 I .'.I. la. . a..c- ... . - ■-; 1 i - -I" 
i 3 Qeo] Survey No. 102, 1903, p. 481. P, Upper shale and sandstone; E, pnn- 



YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTIES. 



cipal shale series (upper portion); D, intermediate sandstone, etc.; C, principal 

shale serin (lower portion); It. main artesian sandstone; A, ba-al series 

M ear Dudley —Well ;! miles -out heast of Dudley, on (arm .it .1.1'. I'laohor, it. , 
see. 22, T. Ill N., R. 40 W.; approximate. The altitude also is approximate. 
AUllmri'lics, Adair Ibotbors, drillers, Marshall. 

Aniiret — Flowing well at Aiuiret owned bv Webb & McLaughlin; approximate. 
Authorilv, O. \V, Marlin, driller, Marshall. , 

Tru-y ' -Deep v. II drill,. I al Ti „-, in 111" wilder,,! Iss., SI,. II van re| od b; 

Prof. N. H. Winchell (Four nth Ami lb ' ' ">'" "'.' *.'" "^ ',!",',','," 

sera, ISSa, p|>, :. ,i ii i ■. '.',,.., a ■, . , Dan ei ■, e.n.n in., ''aue. 

The well was diill.d by Swan e; SI u ev, and the drl lings were oxaiuin. .1 h> 1 ro o-.jr 
Winohell. The description of the sti 

Lynd Township.— Well drilled in 
on the farm of F. Mellenthine. SW. i 
Met a, lean, driller, Marshall. 



" mil' and Ii miles west of Marshall. 

,9, T. Ml N., R 42 W. Authority, William 



LYON COUNTY. 245 

sec. 9, T. Ill N., R. 42 W.) the water rises slightly above the surface 
at an altitude of about 1,290 feet; in the well at Amiret it overflows 
at 1,280 feet; at Tracy it rises to about 1,230 feet; and at Walnut 
Grove to 1,216 feet. 

The northeastern margin is approximately parallel with the south- 
western. Starting north of Ghent it passes over Grandview and Fair- 
view townships (T. 112 N., R. 42 W., and T. 112 N., R. 41 W.) to the 
southeast corner of the latter township. Thence it crosses Clifton 
Township (T. Ill N., R. 40 W.) diagonally, and leaves the county 
near the southeast corner of this township. 

The southwestern margin of the flowing area is evidently de- 
termined by the surface altitude, but another explanation is necessary 
to account for its limits toward the northeast, for the surface con- 
tinues to descend in this direction. The failure to obtain flows on 
the lower ground to the northeast may result from either of two 
causes, decrease in the artesian pressure or interruption of the 
artesian zone. It was observed that near the margin the wells 
commonly give rise only to very small flows, and that in some wells 
at least this is not due to lack of pressure but rather to the absence 
of any bed that will yield much water. The well on the farm of 
T. L. Wolf, NE. | sec. 12, T. 11 1 N., R. 41 W., will serve as an example. 
It is located near the northeastern margin, is 520 feet deep, and has 
a section similar to that of the successful flowing wells immediately 
to the west and south. At the depth of 410 feet it penetrated a 
hard and nearly impervious layer which corresponds stratigraphically 
to the much thicker and more porous sandstone that gives rise to 
flowing wells farther west and south. This nearly impervious layer 
yielded only a slight flow, which, however, had a good pressure. 
Farther northeast no flows are obtained because deep drilling fails 
to find water-bearing beds. The flowing well at Minneota, whose 
section is given in Plate XII, is another illustration of this condition. 
It yields only a few gallons a day, the water escaping drop by drop; 
yet when the top of the well is closed the confined water exerts 
considerable pressure, showing that the small yield is not due to a 
lack of head. Moreover, the water can be pumped down to any 
level almost instantly. The main artesian zone is evidently absent, 
and only a minute quantity of water is transmitted by the nearly 
impervious white formation. In some wells the pressure is slight 
or the water does not rise to the surface, but a general survey of the 
conditions has led to the conclusion that the flowing area does not 
extend farther east and north primarily because of the rise of the 
granite surface and the consequent interruption of the principal 
artesian sandstone. 

At Marshall the pressure has diminished to a marked extent since 
the first flowing wells were sunk. The following data are for the 
main artesian zone. 



246 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Decrease in artesian pressure in wells at Marshall. 



Depth of 
well. 



Date of 

test. 



Head above Head above 
surface. sea level. 



Old flouring-mill well a 
M. Guiseke's well c. . . . 



Feet. 
392 



11894. 
t (») 
(1901. 
\1906. 



Feet. 



207 
161 

131 

70 



Feet. 



1,375 
1,329 
1,300 
1,240 



a Authority, chief engineer Marshall flouring mill. 

b In U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 102, 1903, p. 4cSl, J. E. Todd states that the head is 
reported to be 161 feet, but gives no date, 
c Authority, Adair Brothers, drillers, Marshall. 

The data given for the city well, which is 410 feet deep, substantially 
corroborate those given in the above table. In 1895 it had a pressure 
of 90 pounds to the square inch; that is, the water would have risen 
207 feet above the surface, or fully 1,375 feet above sea level, but at 
present the head is much lower — probably lower than that given for 
the Guiseke well in 1906. a 

There are no flowing wells at Tracy, but the head there also has 
been greatly lowered. In the city well, which is about 600 feet 
deep, the water is reported to have risen in 1892 to a level about 50 
feet below the surface, or 1,360 feet above the sea, whereas in 1907 it 
was reported to remain 180 feet below the surface, or 1,230 feet 
above sea level. Tins shows approximately the same loss of head 
as at Marshall, and suggests that the decrease of pressure may be a 
general phenomenon. 

In the well at the new flouring mill in Marshall, which reaches 
a deeper source than the other flowing wells of the city, the pressure 
at present is 40 pounds to the square inch; that is, the water would 
rise about 92 feet above the surface, or 1,270 feet above sea level. 
The 250-foot zone at Marshall yields so little water and has been 
pumped so hard that the head has been lowered greatly. It once 
produced flows, and even as late as in 1906 the water in the mill 
well is reported to have risen, when the well was not pumped for a 
week, within 16 feet of the surface. A few flowing wells end in the 
300-foot stratum. 

QUALITY OF THE WATER. 

The analyses given in the accompanying table (pp. 251-252) show 
that in some important respects the Cretaceous waters of this region 
are similar and in other respects they differ widely. They are all 
highly mineralized, but they vary greatly in the total amount of 
mineral matter that they contain. Likewise they are all characterized 
by a large content of sodium and of sulphates and chlorine, but there 
is a great difference in the absolute quantities of all these. They 
differ most radically, however, in their content of calcium and mag- 
nesium, and hence in their hardness and scale-forming properties. 



a Information furnished by Eugene Simmons, superintendent of the public waterworks, Marshall. 



LYON COUNTY. 247 

The quality of the water from the various Cretaceous strata will be 
discussed under the heads of shallow zones, intermediate zones, and 
deep zones. 

Shallow zones. — The water from the shallow sources at Marshall is 
very hard, as well as rich in the alkali sulphates, and that from the 
strata near the surface at Minneota is similar. 

Intermediate zones. — The water that comes from depths interme- 
diate between the shallow and deep zones seems to be relatively soft. 
The following data bear on this point: 

The water from the 250-foot and 300-foot strata at Marshall is 
soft, as shown by analyses 6, 7, and 8 in the table. 

In the J. DeCock well, near Ghent (PI. XII), the 9-foot stratum 
that lies at a depth of 265 feet supplies water which is considered soft. 

At Minneota the 10-foot layer of sand encountered at a depth of 
246 feet in drilling the deep flowing well (PI. XII) is reported to 
contain soft water. 

In the vicinity of Cottonwood the water from the lower beds — that 
is, from depths about 150 feet — is said generally to be soft (for exam- 
ple, the old mill well, which was 152 feet deep) . In the village well, the 
water, which is supposed to come from a depth of 175 feet, contains 
great quantities of common salt (sodium chloride), but is rather 
soft and not otherwise excessively mineralized. 

In the region about Dudley the wells between 160 and 230 feet in 
depth, given in the list on page 243, all yield water that is considered 
soft. 

At Walnut Grove the village well and other wells between the 
depths of 150 and 325 feet supply soft water. 

Deep zones. — The water from the main artesian sandstone, which 
occurs at Marshall at a depth of about 400 feet, is extremely hard; 
it also contains large amounts of sodium and of sulphates and chlorine, 
and is very corrosive. No unmixed sample could be obtained from 
the well at the new mill, but its water also seems to be very hard. 
At Tracy the water from the depth of 600 feet is hard, but in general 
less highly mineralized than that from the deep sources at Marshall. 

It is significant that some of the deepest wells afford soft water, 
as is shown by analysis 10 in the table. A few of the wells reported 
to belong to this class are given in the following list: 

Partial list of deep " soft-ivater' ' wells in Lyon County, shoiving oivner, location, and depth. 

Feet. 

T. Jansen, SE. \ sec. 17, T. Ill N., R. 41 W a 422 

Fred Mellenthine, SW. i sec. 9, T. Ill N., R. 42 W 530 

B. Reese, SE. \ sec. 3, T. Ill N., R. 42 W 415 

F. A. Revard, SW. i sec. 19, T. Ill N., R. 41 W 505 

Andrew Silvius, NW. i sec. 6, T. 110 N., R. 41 W a 506 

A., J., andE. Van Moer, NW. \ sec. 17, T. HON., R. 40 W 447 

G.T.Walker, SW. \ sec. 18, T. Ill N., R. 41 W "433 

a Todd, J. E., Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102. p. 481. 



248 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

PALEOZOIC AND ALGONKIAN ROCKS. 

Remnants of Paleozoic strata may exist; but if so, they are deeply 
buried and have not been recognized. 

The Sioux quartzite is certainly absent in most of Lyon County, 
but may be present in the southwestern part, though there is no 
evidence of it. Even if present, it is of no value as a source of water. 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 

Granite or its decomposition products have been struck in drilling 
at Cottonwood, Ghent, and Minneota, and elsewhere north of Three- 
mile Creek and Redwood River, as well as at one point near the 
center of the county (NW. I sec. 6, T. 110 N., R. 41 W.), and at 
Tracy, in the extreme southern part. The data bearing on the depth 
of this rock below the surface and its elevation above sea level are 
shown in Plates III and XII. 

In most places where the granite is penetrated it is found to be 
much altered at the top, commonly being so thoroughly decayed 
that it is as soft as any clay. The following are some of the indica- 
tions of granitic residuum which every driller should understand: 
(1) Clays of brilliant red, yellow, green, white, etc.; (2) silvery flakes 
of mica; (3) angular, transparent grains of quartz; (4) hard, " glassy" 
layers alternating with softer material. These last are the quartzose 
bands of the original gneissic rock. In many localities there is a 
compact white formation consisting of kaolin or associated minerals 
derived from the underlying granite. In some places it has a sur- 
prising thickness, and contains interbedded seams of grit; such seams 
prove that it is not there a truly residual product, though resulting 
from the decomposition of the rock and nearly always lying upon it. 
(See the Minneota, Canby, and Tracy sections in PI. XII.) 

The granite is not water-bearing, except that rarely small supplies 
are developed in the upper part. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Marshall. — The underground water conditions in Marshall have 
been fully described. The public supply is obtained chiefly from a 
combination dug and drilled well less than 100 feet in total depth. 
An artesian well 410 feet deep, and also the mill well and the river 
can be drawn on in case of fire. The combination well is reported 
to yield about 50,000 gallons a day, and the artesian well will flow 
at least 30,000 gallons in the same period. The water from the 
former is preferred to that from the latter because it is somewhat 
less highly mineralized. Analyses of both are given in the table (pp. 
251-252). About 600 people use the public supply and on an average 

a Todd, J. E., Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102, 1903, p. 481. 



LYON COUNTY. 249 

approximately 40,000 gallons is consumed daily. About three-fourths 
of the inhabitants use water from private wells, most of which are 
less than 100 feet deep. The small supplies from the 250-foot soft- 
water zone are utilized in boilers and to some extent for culinary 
purposes. The water from the deep artesian sandstone is ruinous 
to boilers. 

Tracy. — There are in Tracy two principal sources of underground 
water, the glacial drift at depths of less than 200 feet, and the sand- 
stone stratum at 600 feet. The stratigraphic section is given in 
Plate XII. The deep well which furnishes the public supply has 
already been described. The analyses in the table show that its 
water is hard. About 50,000 gallons is used daily, and approximately 
1,800 people are served. The Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
Company uses water from Lake Sigel for boiler purposes, and most 
of the people south of the railway are also supplied with this water. 
The private wells are dug, bored, or drilled, and range from a few 
feet to about 175 feet in depth, ending in glacial drift. The water 
in the shallow wells is considered poor. 

Minneota. — The entire supply for the village of Minneota comes 
from depths of less than 125 feet. The public supply is taken from 
a well 6 inches in diameter and 111 feet deep. It passes through 
glacial drift and below that through layers of "soapstone," sand, 
and sandstone, and is finished with an open end in a sandstone 
stratum. The water rises within 20 feet of the surface, or about 
1,165 feet above sea level. About 7,000 gallons is consumed daily. 
All the we]ls in the village yield hard water. An analysis of the 
public supply is given in the table below. Softer water could prob- 
ably be obtained at a depth of 250 feet (PL XII). About 75 per 
cent of the people use water from private wells, many of which are 
bored to depths of less than 30 feet and end in glacial drift, but some 
are drilled into the Cretaceous sandstone. 

Cottonwood. — The granitic residuum at Cottonwood lies within 200 
feet of the surface and is very thick. The glacial drift is 75 or 100 
feet deep. Between the drift and the granitic material are strata 
of shale and sandstone. The entire population depends upon pri- 
vate supplies. There are only a few wells in the village, but most 
of the people have cisterns which are filled either with rain water or 
with water hauled from farm wells. The few private wells are of the 
dug or bored type and are about 20 to 40 feet deep. It is difficult 
to get water at shallow depths, but better supplies seem to occur 
between 100 and 150 feet below the surface. The railway well is 
139 feet deep and ends in coarse sand yielding hard water. The 
creamery well is 160 feet deep and extends into white sand. The 
old mill well, now abandoned, was 152 feet deep and stopped in sand- 
stone that yielded water reported to be soft. It seems that all these 



250 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

were successful wells. The well which was intended to supply the 
public waterworks was drilled to a depth of 375 feet, penetrating 
deep into the granitic rocks. It is cased to 175 feet and is said to 
get its meager supply from this depth. As the yield is very small 
and the water contains great quantities of sodium chloride (see the 
analysis given in the table), it is used only for fire protection. The 
well will soon be abandoned and water from the lake will be used. 

Balaton. — The public supply for the village of Balaton is taken 
from a well 8 feet in diameter and 27 feet deep. It passes through 
coarse gravel and is cased with stone. In 1907 the water stood about 
13 feet below the surface, and pumping at the rate of 45 gallons a 
minute lowered it but slightly. It is moderately hard and supplies 
about 250 people, approximately 10,000 gallons being consumed 
daily. About one-half of the inhabitants use water from private 
wells. The dug wells are generally 20 or 30 feet deep and end in a 
thick bed of outwash gravel, but the drilled wells pass through blue 
bowlder clay and extend to sand and gravel layers at depths of 100 
to 150 feet. The railway well is similar to the village well. The mill 
and creamery are supplied from drilled wells. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

On the lowland plain occupying the northeastern part of the county 
there are a few shallow bored wells that end in glacial drift, but 
these are generally unsatisfactory both in the quality and the quan- 
tity of the water that they furnish. For this reason by far the 
greater number of the farms here are supplied by drilled wells that 
tap the Cretaceous strata. Near the northern margin of the county 
these are commonly between 100 and 200 feet deep: northeast of 
Dudley they are generally 200 feet deep or less; in the vicinity of 
Marshall and thence southeastward between Dudley and Amiret to 
Redwood County there are many flowing wells between 300 and 500 
feet deep, but also numerous shallower drilled wells. 

On the upland plain or coteau in the southwestern part of the 
comity the entire farm supply is derived from the glacial drift. 
Most of the wells are bored and are less than 100 feet deep, but there 
are also many drilled wells whose average depth is somewhat greater. 

On that part of the slope which is included in the Cretaceous flow- 
ing area numerous deep wells penetrate the artesian strata, but where 
flows can not be obtained virtually all the wells end in drift. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The facts in regard to the underground waters can best be sum- 
marized as follows: 



LYON COUNTY. 



251 



Underground water conditions in Lyon County. 



Area. 


Zones. 


Depth. 


Yield. 


Head. 


Quality. 




(Glacial drift 


Feet. 
to 100+.. 

25 to 150... 
150 to 230.. 

to 100.... 

50 to 100 

-200 to 300. 
300 to 550.. 

to 300 


None to moder- 
ate. 


Near sur- 
face. 
...do 


Hard. 


Northern portion of 
lowland plain (north 


Shallow Cretaceous.. 
Intermediate Creta- 
ceous. 


Do. 


of Ghent, Dudley, 
and Milroy.) 

Southern portion of 
lowland plain and 
slope (approximate- 
ly coinciding with 
the Cretaceous flow- 
ing area (PI. IV), 
between Dudley, 
Ghent, Lynd, arid 
Tracy.) 

Southwe stern por- 
tion — the upland 
plain and that por- 
tion of the slope not 


Small to moder- 
ate. 

None to moder- 
ate. 
...do 


...do 

...do 

..do 


Rather soft. 
Hard. 


Shallow Cretaceous 
(absent in east 

■ part). 

Intermediate Creta- 
ceous. 

Deep Cretaceous 


Do. 


Small to moder- 
ate. 

Moderate to 
large. 

. ..do 


-i- to -125. 
( + ) 

Variable . . 
Low 


Soft. 

Varying, gener- 
ally hard. 

Hard. 


included in the Cre- 
taceous flowing area. 
(Southwest of Tracy, 
Lynd, and Min- 
neota.) 


[Cretaceous 


300 to 1,000 

(?) 


do 


Varying. 



Mineral analyses of water in Lyon County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Glacial drift and top of Cretaceous. 



Cretaceous. 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches.. 

Silica(Si0 2 ) 

Iron(Fe) 

Aluminum ( Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe 2 03+Al 2 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium(Na+ K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3)... 

Sulphate radicle (SO,) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



20 



111 
6 
27 
1.5 



20 
3.2 
10 



185 



250 

2 

3.2 

.13 
1.8 



250 

1} 

1.2 

.15 
2.5 



300 
2 

2 :-n 

2.1 



312 
6 
12 



178 
75 
103 



436 

559 

26 



1.167 



3.2 
142 
70 
205 

.0 

380 

691 

33 

.0 

1,370 



207 
89 
126 



563 
657 
6.8 



1,387 



163 
74 
134 

439 

604 



1,230 



26 

306 

95 

24s 



1,209 
628 



1,943 



31 
16 

258 

242' 

378 

52 

836* 



40 

13 

269 

268 

291 

92 

854' 



59 

20 

524 

325' 
950 
49 

1, 793' 



6.4 
17 
12 
423 

.0 

268 

709 

23 

.0 

1,345 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches.. 

Silica(Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Aluminum (Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe 2 3 +Al 2 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ 

K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) - - - 

Sulphate radicle (SO<) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



Cretaceous— Continued. 



422 
li 
2.8 
Tr. 
3.4 



22 

16 

536 

36l' 

819 

63 

1,663' 



11. 



390 
"22 



329 
97 



676 

1,279 

51 



2,449 



485(?) 
6 
23 
3 



261 
75 

203 

420* 
935 

40 

1,789' 



410 
8 
10 



209 
139 



716 

1,317 

30 



2,473 



430 

4* 



2.06 
324 
99 



387 

1,679 

47 



2,774 



600 
10 to 6 
16 



4.4 
138 
36 



283 
645 
39 

1,244 



600 

"24 



5 
139 
33 

182 



231 

630 
18 



1,150 



592 
"s.3 



3. 
130 
33 

242 

"296' 

689 

18 

i.'m' 



Archean-Creta- 

ceous contact 

zone. 



375(?) 
6 and 8 
5 



3.8 

38 
32 

934 

85' 

258 
1,340 

Tr. 
2,669 



3 
89 
69 

611 

254 

778 
580 



252 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

1. Well at Minneota. 

2. Village well at Minneota. August 23, 1907. 

3. Wellof the Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company at Marshall. May, 1900. 

4. City well at Marshall from which the public supply is usually taken. August 12, 1007. 

5. We'll at Tracy. October 28, 1SS0. 

6. Well at the Marshall Bottling Works. November 12, 1908. 

7. Well of H. H. Adair at Marshall. November 12. 190S. 

S. Well of C. H. Middleton, near Marshall, in the SE. i sec. 3, T. Ill N., R. -11 W. November 12, 1908 
9. Village well at Walnut Grove (Redwood County). 

10. Welfof T. Jansen, near Marshall, on the SE. i sec. 17, T. Ill N., R. 41 W. November 12, 190S. 

11. Flowing well at the old mill in Marshall. March 0. 1S90. 

12. City flowing well at Marshall. August 12, 1907. 

13. Flowing well at Marshall. April 28, 1902. 

14. Flowing well of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company at Marshall. February 13, 1903. 

15. City well at Tracv. August 13, 1907. 

16. City well at Tracy. August 26, 1896. 

17. We'll at Tracv. March 0, 1881. 

IS. Village well at Cottonwood. August 21, 1907. 

19. Flowing well on the property of W. A. Rush at Minneota. August 23, 1907. 

Analyses^, 4, 0, 7, S. 9, 10, 12, 15, IS. and 19 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. 
Whitta'ker, chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1. 3, 5, 13, 14, and 17 were furnished by 
G. M. Davidson, chemist, Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company. Analyses 11 and 16 were fur- 
nished by Edgar & Mariner, chemists. Chicago. 

McLEOD COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of McLeod County consists of a gently undulating 
plain which is covered with many swamps and small lakes. The 
principal streams are Buffalo Creek and South Branch of Crow 
River, both of which flow eastward across the county. They occupy 
shallow valleys and have accomplished but little postglacial erosion. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift occurs in all parts of the county 
and its average thickness is great. Older formations nowhere come 
to the surface, and they have been reached in only a few wells. In 
the city well at Glencoe the drift was found to be at least 2S0 feet 
thick and possibly 354 feet.° At Brownton it has been penetrated 
to a depth of 304 feet; at Stewart to a depth of 265 and perhaps 
320 feet, and on a farm south of Stewart to a depth of 375 feet, 
without apparently reaching the bottom. In the village of Buf- 
falo Lake, 6 miles west of this county, it was found to be about 
340 feet thick. At Hutchinson it has been penetrated to a depth 
of 230 feet, and in several wells between that city and Brownton 
to depths of more than 300 feet, without reaching the bottom, and 
in a well near Lester Prairie the underlying rock was entered 360 
feet below the surface. 

Yield of water. — The drift yields generous quantities of water, the 
deepest sand and gravel beds especially furnishing large and permanent 
supplies. The 10-inch flowing well at the flouring mill in Hutchinson, 

a This statement is based on the correlations made by Prof. C W. Hall. A different interpretation is 
given by Wan-en Upham. See Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 6, 1900, oppo- 
site PI. 37. 



McLEOD COUNTY. 253 

about 180 feet deep, has been pumped at the rate of 800 gallons a min- 
ute, and when given a head of 6 feet it will flow 200 gallons a minute. 
The 6-inch village well at Brownton, reported to be 304 feet deep, has 
been tested with an air lift at the rate of 95 gallons a minute. The 
8-inch village well at Stewart, 320 feet deep, appears to have a less 
generous yield. According to report it "will supply 60 gallons a 
minute when the pump is placed 107 feet below the water in the well, 
but fails to furnish this amount when the pump is only 87 feet below 
the water level. 

Head of the water. — Flowing wells can be obtained in the valley of 
South Branch of Crow River all the way from Otter Lake to Lester 
Prairie (PI. IV) . The water from various sand and gravel beds will come 
to the surface, but the strongest artesian zone lies at a depth of about 
200 feet. Several flowing wells are found east and north of Otter 
Lake and in the valley leading eastward from this lake. In the city 
of Hutchinson there are about 55 flowing wells which range in depth, 
according to their surface altitudes, between 180 and 210 feet. In the 
well at the mill, situated on the bank of the river, the water is under 
sufficient pressure to rise 28 feet above the surface, or to a level 1,055 
feet above the sea. In wells located upon ground higher than about 
1,055 feet above sea level the water does not come to the surface. A 
few flows have been obtained from a 45-foot seam which has about 
the same head as the 200-foot zone, and flows of very slight yield are 
obtained from a depth of about 170 feet. 

Not many flowing wells have been drilled in the valley between 
Hutchinson and Biscay, but there are several in the vicinity of Biscay, 
and some at various points along the valley to Koniska and beyond. 
At tbe village of Biscay the water will rise about 20 feet above the 
surface, or approximately 1,040 feet above sea level. At Lester 
Prairie, on the north side of South Branch near the point where that 
stream flows out of the county, the water from a 100-foot zone and 
also from lower beds comes virtually to the surface, which is here 980 
feet above sea level. Flows could probably be secured on the river 
bottom all the way from Koniska to Lester Prairie. 

On the west side of Lake Marion (T. 115 N., R. 30 W.) there are 
several flowing wells about 100 feet deep; in the valley of Buffalo 
Creek the water rises virtually to the surface and in a few wells over- 
flows with a slight head. 

The head decreases toward the southeast, away from the high 
morainic area, which is in large measure the cause of the artesian 
conditions. This fact is made clear by the following table showing the 
head to which the water from the drift rises in the various localities in. 
the county. 



254 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Height to which water rises from the glacial drift in McLeod County. 



Locality. 


Above 

(+)or 

belo\v(— ) 

surface. 


Above 
sea level. 




Feet. 
+28 
+22 

-13 
-24 
-30 


Feet. 
1,055 




1,040 




980 




1,045 




995 






970 










Quality of the water. — In this region there is both a vertical and a 
horizontal variation in the mineral character of the water from the 
glacial drift. In general, the hardness decreases from the west east- 
ward, and from the upper portion of the drift downward. Thus the 
shallow drift water is not as hard in this county as in Renville County, 
but in both counties it is harder than the average water from the 
deep drift zones. (See the analyses in the table on pp. 257-258.) 

FORMATIONS BENEATH THE GLACIAL DRIFT. 

Description. — Nearly all that is known about the formations beneath 
the glacial drift is derived from the record of the deep well which was 
sunk for the city of Glencoe in 1897. The drillings of this well were 
preserved by Mr. T. M. Paine, of Glencoe, and were examined and 
described by Prof. C. W. Hall and Prof. J. A. Partridge of the Univer- 
sity of Minnesota. The following is the section given : 

Section of the deep well at Glencoe. 



Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


3 


3 


78 


81 


67 


148 


39 


187 


38 


225 


55 


280 


10 


290 


20 


310 


43 


353 


1 


354 


56 


410 


134 


544 


34 


578 


14 


592 


10 


602 


218 


820 


54 


874 


62 


936 


139 


1,075 


565 


1,640 



Soil 

Gravel and sandy clay 

Blue clay ' 

Gravelly clay 

Uniform sand with streaks of clay 

Gravel and sand 

Blue shale 

Gray sandy shale 

Gray uniform sand 

A drift conglomerate 

Gray shale, grading into red 

White sand 

Pink sand, grading nearly to white and showing evidence of consolidation 

White sand, grading into pink 

Light-gray sand 

Pink sand , toward the bottom becoming highly colored 

White sandstone, varying to pink 

Pink sandstone 

Red shale and sandstone of uniformly persistent color 

Red to pink shale and sandstone , with but little variation (no samples) . . 



This well extends 645 feet below sea level without encountering 
granite, and penetrates at least 1,286 feet of stratified formations. If 
the section (below the drift) includes Cretaceous, Paleozoic, and Algon- 
]kian strata, it probably represents several distinct systems separated 



McLEOD COUNTY. 255 

by unconformities. At Buffalo Lake, 6 miles west of McLeod County 
and 23 miles west of Glencoe, granitic rock is reached at about 340 feet 
below the surface, or 725 feet above sea level, and there are no stratified 
rocks present, the glacial drift resting immediately upon the granite. 
All the stratified formations in the Glencoe section therefore disappear 
before reaching Buffalo Lake. 

Yield of water, — The section of the deep well at Glencoe consists 
largely of water-bearing sandstones. The beds lying between the 
depths of 310 and 354 feet yielded some water, but a larger supply 
came from the sandstones below 410 feet. The well is now cased to 
a depth of 385 feet, below which it is open. With the pump placed 
100 feet below the surface, or about 10 feet below the normal level 
of the water, it has been tested at the rate of about 175 gallons a 
minute for thirty-six hours continuously. It is also reported to have 
been tested at 150 gallons a minute with the pump inserted only 2 
feet below the water level. In the 8-inch railway well at Glencoe, 
which is 566 feet deep, pumping at the rate of 115 gallons a minute 
lowered the water about 1 foot. 

Head of the water. — The deep well at Glencoe was drilled for the 
purpose of obtaining a flow, but this project failed. At first the 
water rose to a level 115 feet below the surface, or 880 feet above the 
sea — about the height to which it now rises in the 566-foot railway 
well. At a greater depth the water came within 90 feet of the surface, 
or 905 feet above sea level, which is the head at the present time. 
The view is held by some of the people that the water from the lower 
strata would rise higher if the well could be tightly cased, so that 
the deep water coming up through the well could not leak out into 
the upper formations. This theory is based on a sound principle 
too often ignored in drilling artesian wells; but the altitude at this 
point makes it virtually certain that the water would not rise to the 
surface from any horizon penetrated in the Glencoe well. 

Quality of the water. — The mineral character of the water from the 
Paleozoic sandstones is shown by the three analyses, given in the 
table on page 258, of samples taken from the deep Glencoe well. 
This water does not differ greatly from that of the lower portions of 
the drift, except that it is somewhat higher in the alkalies, sulphates, 
and chlorine. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Hutchinson. — The public supply and nearly all of the domestic and 
industrial supplies at Hutchinson are obtained from the strong 
artesian layer that occurs at a depth of about 200 feet. This zone 
is so satisfactory that drilling to greater depths has never been under- 
taken. It gives rise to flows in all parts of the city except the south- 
western, where the altitude is greatest. The well at EL H, Ames's 



256 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

flouring mill, which is described above (p. 252), furnishes the public 
supply, the city being given the use of the water free of charge. This 
well was drilled about twenty years ago and there appears to be no 
diminution in the pressure. The analysis contained in the table 
shows that the water is moderately hard. About 33,000 gallons is 
consumed daily. 

Glencoe. — The public supply in Glencoe is taken from the 1,640- 
foot well, which has been fully described. About 1,000 peoj)le 
use the water, and 125,000 gallons is daily consumed. Approxi- 
mately one-half the inhabitants, however, rely upon private wells, 
only a few of which are drilled to any considerable depth. The 
brewery well is 224 feet, the creamery well 230 feet, and the railway 
well 566 feet deep. Several analyses of water from this vicinity will 
be found in the table on pages 257-258. 

Brownton. — The glacial drift in the locality of Brownton is known 
to be thick, but no definite section is available. The village well 
is 304 feet deep and ends with a screen in a bed of gravel. Its head 
and yield are given above. The water is relatively soft, as is shown 
by the two analyses given in the table. It is used by nearly all the 
people, and the daily consumption averages about 4,000 gallons. 

Stewart. — At Stewart the section, to a depth of -at least 320 feet, 
consists of bowlder clay with interbedded layers of sand and gravel. 
The best water zones seem to be found below 265 feet. The well 
which furnishes the public supply ends with a screen in one of these 
deeper beds. The data in regard to this well have already been given 
(pp. 253-254). The water, an analysis of which will be found in the 
table, is softer than that from the more shallow wells. About 
20,000 gallons is consumed daily, but most of this is taken by the 
railway company, for nearly all the people, perhaps 90 per cent, use 
water from private wells. 

Lester Prairie. — The village of Lester Prairie is located on the north 
side of Crow River on a level terrace underlain by alluvial sand and 
gravel, which extends to a depth of about 30 feet and is saturated 
with water nearly to the surface. Beneath the alluvium is the 
ordinary glacial drift, consisting of blue clay and sandy seams from 
which the water rises virtually to the surface, or 980 feet above sea 
level. North of the village, at a somewhat higher altitude, stretches 
the gently undulating drift plain which comprises most of the county. 
The public waterworks are supplied from a well 20 feet in diameter, 
which ends in the alluvial deposits at a depth of 22 feet. In 1907 
the water stood 8 feet below the surface, and pumping at the rate 
of 200 gallons a minute was reported to empty the well in about one 
hour. The water is rather hard, as is shown by the analysis given in 
the table below. Only a small amount is consumed. Near all the 
people use water from private wells, which are driven into the alluvium 
and yield generously, though on an average less than 20 feet deep. 



McLEOD COUNTY. 



257 



Silver Lake. — The domestic supply at Silver Lake is obtained 
chiefly from bored wells between 20 and 65 feet deep. The public 
waterworks are supplied from the lake. 

Winsted. — In Winsted village, as in Silver Lake, the domestic 
supply is derived mainly from bored wells less than 100 feet deep, 
but the public waterworks are supplied from the lake. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

At one time virtually all the farm wells were bored or dug, and 
most of them are still of this type. They are shallow and yield 
varying quantities of hard water. Gradually they are being replaced 
by drilled wells, especially in the vicinities of Glencoe, Brownton, Bis- 
cay, and Hutchinson. The drilled wells are generally 2 inches in 
diameter and range from less than 75 to more than 300 feet in depth, 
most being between 100 and 200 feet. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The deposits of bowlder clay, which are everywhere several hundred 
feet thick, contain numerous layers of sand and gravel, the deepest of 
which yield large and permanent supplies. In general, the water 
from the lowest beds is the softest and least liable to incrust the 
screens placed in the wells,, but there are exceptions to this rule. 
Flows are obtained only in certain low areas. 

In the eastern portion there are thick formations of sandstone, and 
it is probable that these occur, at least in part, throughout most of the 
county, at depths of 400 to 600 feet and more. They will furnish 
large quantities of only moderately hard water, but will not give rise 
to flows at any point in this county. 

Mineral analyses of water in McLeod County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 











Surface 


deposi 


ts (glacial drift 


etc.). 










1. 


0. 


3. 


4. 5. 6. 


7. 


8. 


9. 


10. 


11. 


Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well . . . inches . . 


21 
120 


22 

28 
Tr. 


22 
240 
31 

. 2 


28 
144 


39 
144 


40 
84 


112 
2 


115 


120 


172 
3 


180 
10 


Silica (Si0 2 ) 






22 


Iron(Fe) 


















5 


Aluminum ( Al) 




















Iron and aluminum oxides 
(Fe 2 03+Al 3 03)... 


3.3 

78 
24 

5 


8 
149 
50 

37 
.0 
547 
117 

54 

12 
740 


.8 
136 

44 

61 

.0 

415 

110 

130 

4.2 
731 


4.7 
113 

46 

10 


6.2 
112 

49 

20 


7 
76 
24 

5 


8.4 
96 
43 

54 


7.4 
88 
38 

45 


6.4 
96 
42 

56 


12 
117 
42 

39 






103 




39 


Sodium and potassium 
(Na+K) 


29 


Carbonate radicle (CO3) 


.0 


Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI)... . 


330 

27 
3.2 


484 
65 
19 


516 
61 

27 


307 
41 
3.6 


540 

79 
4 


572 
10 
1.5 


560 

71 

3 


628 
28 
2 


512 
67 
2 


Nitrate radicle (NO3) 


.0 


Total solids 


303 


496 


529 


308 


550 


467 


550 


549 


531 







60920°— wsp 256—11 17 



258 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Mineral analyses of water in McLeod County — Continued. 



Surface deposits (glacial drifts, etc.)— Continued. 



12. 13. 14. 15. ' 16. 



226 



Depth feet. 

Diameter of well inches. 

Silica(Si0 2 ) ' 24 

Iron(Fe) 2.8 

Aluminum (Al) 4.9 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe 2 3 +Al 2 03) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) . 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Total solids 



230 
3 



117 

48 



28 



647 

65 

1 



568 



609 



230 
2 



260 



3 
120 
51 



1.2 
40 
23 



304 


304 


320 


6 


6 


8 


29 




26 



686 I 503 
54 ; 



512 
20 



49l' 



3.1 
75 
34 

75 

588" ' 

"s " 

48i" 



3.2 
42 

10 



440 
24 



1.3 
449 



Paleozoic sandstones. 



1,(140 
5 and 6 



1.7 
78 
40 



456 
107 
35 



1,640 I 1,640 
SandO 8and6 

8.8 

.5 

4.7 



429 
116 
37 
.0 
600 



1.2 
75 
33 



464 
158 
165 



870 



1. Well at Hutchinson. November 24, 1897. 

2. Well of Lee Arnold at Brownton. September 17, 1907. 

3. Village well at Lester Prairie. September 19, 1907. 

4. Well at Glencoe. September 3, 1888. 

5. Well at Glencoe. May 3, 1888. • 

6. Well at Hutchinson. October 13, 1888. 

7. Well at the flouring mill at Brownton. December 5, 1894. 

8. Well at Brownton. December 5, 1894. 

9. "Bullick's well" at Brownton. December 5, 1894. 

10. Mr. Hayden's well at Glencoe. April 22, 1895. 

11. Flowing well at the flouring mill at Hutchinson. This well furnishes the public supply. Septem- 
ber 18, 1907. 

12. Flowing well on the farm of William Conrad, NE. \ sec. 31, T. 116 N., R. 28 W. One and one-half 
miles east of Biscay. September 18, 1907. 

13. Creamery well at Glencoe. May 9, 1895. 

14. "Bretchet's well" at Glencoe. May 9, 1895. 

15. Well at Stewart. March 3, 1896. 

16. Village well at Brownton. September 17, 1907. 

17. Village well at Brownton. October 3, 1895. 

18. Village well at Stewart. September 14, 1907. 

19. City well at Glencoe. July 21, 1898. 

20. City well at Glencoe. September 17, 1907. 

21. City well at Glencoe. July 17, 1897. 

Analyses 2,3, 11, 12, 16. 18, and 20 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, 
chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,13,14,15,17,19* and 21 were furnished 
by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 

MARTIN COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Martin County constitutes a gently undulating and 
poorly drained upland plain with no notable irregularities except in 
the morainic belt southeast of Fairmont. It descends from an 
altitude of about 1,400 feet above sea level in the southwestern corner 
to about 1,100 feet in the northeastern, the slope being quite imper- 
ceptible, but nevertheless sufficient to affect in an important way the 
head of the underground waters. Most of the numerous lakes in this 
county are arranged in three nearly parallel chains, apparently 
occurring along the lines of a preglacial river system which drained 
the region toward the south. a At present the drainage system is 
entirely different. Elm Creek, Center Creek, and South Creek flow 



aUpham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 18S2, p. 479. 



MARTIN COUNTY. 259 

eastward and discharge into Blue Earth River a few miles beyond 
the county line; East Fork of De Moines River, rising along the west- 
ern margin of the county, flows across the southwestern corner; and 
several small streams rising in the northern part flow northward into 
Watonwan River. These streams have shallow valleys and but few 
tributaries, thus leaving most of the upland prairie untouched by 
erosion. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift, which consists of bowlder-clay 
and interbedded seams of sand and gravel, forms a continuous mantle 
over all of this county. As the underlying formations have seldom 
been reached in drilling, even in wells between 200 and 300 feet deep, 
it is certain that the drift sheet is generally thick, but there is a 
corresponding uncertainty as to its actual thickness. Moreover, there 
is evidence that the surface on which the drift rests is irregular, 
causing corresponding irregularities in the thickness of the drift sheet 
itself. Ancient valleys seem to have been cut into the underlying 
formations, and the drift is unusually deep where these valleys 
existed. In general it is most attenuated in the eastern part and 
increases in thickness toward the southwest. Its average thickness 
for the entire county is probably between 200 and 300 feet. 

Yield of water. — The water-bearing portions of the drift can be 
divided into two rather distinct groups: (1) Gravelly deposits 
associated with the surficial yellow clay above the impervious blue 
clay, and (2) layers of sand and gravel interbedded with the blue 
clay or lying at its base. Few of the former deposits are more than 
40 or 50 feet below the surface. Because of their imperfect porosity 
and the slight pressure to which their water is subjected, the yield 
is commonly small; and because of their surficial position the supply 
is readily affected by the season and may fail entirely in times of 
drought. The second group of deposits occur at various depths and 
have a wide range in thickness, porosity, and water-yielding capacity. 
Occasionally a well is drilled that passes through no bed sufficiently 
thick and coarse to furnish an adequate supply, but such wells are 
exceptional. In nearly every locality are found one or more sandy 
beds that will yield at least as much water as an ordinary windmill 
is capable of pumping. The village well at Sherburn, which ends with 
a 6-inch bore in a 10-foot stratum of sand at a depth of 248 feet, was 
pumped, immediately after its completion, at the rate of 160 gallons 
a minute for a continuous period of about six hours without noticeably 
lowering the water. 

Head of the water. — The water in the sand and gravel beds is 
always under pressure, and hence rises in the wells which tap them. 



260 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The following table shows the surface altitude and the height to which 
the water rises above sea level in different parts of the county : 

Table showing approximately the head of the water from deep-drift zones in Martin < 'ounty. 

' j i 

Altitude 
T „„ lllit „ Altitude to which 

^ ocam >- of surface.! water 

rises. 



Feet. 
Sherburn 1,295 

Ceylon . 



Welcome.. 
Triumph.. 
Fairmont. 
Granada.. 



1,260(?) 
1,243 
1,230 
1,195 
1, 133 



Fret. 
1,215 
1,200(?) 

1,501 
1 , 130 
1,130 
1,100 



In the extreme western and southwestern parts of the county, 
where the surface is more than 1,300 feet above sea level, the water 
from the deeper beds in the drift commonly fails to rise within 100 
feet of the surface; throughout most of the western half of the county, 
where the surface is between 1,200 and 1,300 feet above sea level, 
the water stands somewhere between 50 and 100 feet below the sur- 
face. On the other hand, in the eastern and northeastern parts, 
where the surface is between 1,100 and 1,200 feet above sea level, the 
water usually rises within 50 feet of the surface, and in the valleys 
of Center, Elm, and Perch creeks, which are depressed slightly below 
the 1,100-foot level, flowing wells with slight pressure occur. 

Flows can be obtained (1) in the vallej^ of Center Creek from the 
county line upstream above Granada; (2) in the valley of Elm Creek 
from the county line upstream to sec. 35, T. 104 N., R. 30 W., and 
possibly still farther; (3) in the valleys of the two small branches 
which join Elm Creek in sec. 5, T. 103 N., R. 29 W.; and (4) near the 
headwaters of Perch Creek. Sixteen flowing wells were noted in the 
portion of Center Creek valley that lies in this county, and 23 in the 
portions of Elm Creek valley within the county. It is probable that 
there are a few others that were not noticed. 

In an area of relatively low altitude, such as the eastern part of 
this county, the waters from the various zones (whieh occur at dif- 
ferent depths and are apparently separated b}" layers of impervious 
clay) usually rise very nearly to the same level, the water from the 
deep zones is likely to be lifted slightly higher than that from the 
shallow ones. Thus on the farm of W. R. Benton, sec. 5, T. 103 N., 
R. 29 W., in a well drilled to a depth of 198 feet, beds of water-bearing 
sand or gravel were encountered at depths of 50, 110, 150, and 190 
feet. All these produced flows, but from none did the water rise more 
than a very few feet above the surface. Likewise, in W. H. Thomp- 
son's flowing well at Granada water-bearing beds were encountered 
at depths of 50, 75, and 107 feet. From the first the water rose 2 
feet above the surface; from the second, 2 feet above the surface, 



MARTIN COUNTY. 261 

and from the third, 6 feet above the surface. In a region of rela- 
tively high altitude, on the other hand, such as the western part of 
this county, the water generally rises higher from shallow sources 
than from the deeper ones; this fact-could be illustrated by numerous 
examples. 

Quality of the water. — All the waters from the drift have a high 
content of calcium, magnesium, and. sulphates, and therefore have a 
great permanent hardness and form hard scale in boilers. There are 
however, considerable differences in the degrees of mineralization, 
even in the same locality, as is shown in the analyses contained in 
the accompanying table. 

UNDERLYING FORMATIONS. 

Description. — As there are no rock outcrops in this county and only 
a small number of wells that penetrate formations older than the 
drift, the geologic structure is largely a matter of conjecture. How- 
ever, it seems probable that Cretaceous, Paleozoic, Algonkian, and 
Archean rocks are all present and are separated from each other by 
pronounced unconformities. 

The evidence in regard to the presence of the Cretaceous can be 
summarized as follows : West of Martin County there are many wells 
that apparently end in Cretaceous rocks and a few in different parts 
of this county have penetrated strata of shale, sand, and sandstone 
which appear to belong to this series; but there is no reliable evidence 
of Cretaceous rocks in Faribault County to the east. Furthermore, 
there is considerable evidence that the Cretaceous exists south of the 
western and central parts of Martin County but is absent south of 
the eastern part. Alternating layers of shale, sand, and sandstone, 
which appear to belong at least in part to the Cretaceous, have 
been penetrated at Estherville, Iowa, and at Kingsted, Iowa, south 
of the western and central portions of this county, respectively; but 
a short distance east of Ringsted wells encounter indurated Paleozoic 
limestones without passing through anything that could be inter- 
preted as Cretaceous. Likewise, north of the central and western 
parts a number of wells have been drilled which pass through a con- 
siderable thickness of soft shale, sand, and sandstone, apparently 
continuous with the great body of Cretaceous sediments to the west. 
It therefore appears probable that in the eastern portion of Martin 
County Cretaceous deposits are absent or very thin, but that in the 
western portion they are continuous and attain a greater thickness. 

At Blue Earth, 8 miles east of the county line, at least 800 feet of 
Paleozoic strata lie below the glacial drift and extend downward 
nearly to sea level; at Mountain Lake, 7 miles northwest of Martin 
County, the Sioux quartzite, which is referred to the Algonkian sys- 
tem, lies immediately beneath the drift at an altitude of 1,237 feet 



262 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

above sea level. Thus, in a distance of 45 miles from Blue Earth 
across Martin County to Mountain Lake, all the Paleozoic formations 
from the Galena limestone downward terminate and the underlying 
surface rises from near sea level to 1,237 feet above sea level. The 
Paleozoic formations no doubt dip gently toward the southeast, and 
so if the glacial drift and Cretaceous deposits were removed they 
would probably be seen outcropping in parallel northeast-southwest 
trending belts, the oldest formations lying next to the Sioux quartzite, 
and successively younger formations coming to the surface toward 
the southeast. 

Several wells have penetrated a fine-grained gray or white sand- 
stone, and a well just south of the SW. \ sec. 35, T. 101 N., R. 31 W., 
passed entirely through this sandstone which was here found to be 
100 feet thick. It is possible that the formation in question belongs 
to the Cretaceous sandstone that occurs at Emmetsburg, Iowa, a but 
more probably it belongs to the St. Peter sandstone, which was found 
to be 91 feet thick at Blue Earth. The formations older than the 
St. Peter are not known to have been penetrated in drilling in this 
county. At Blue Earth the Paleozoic rocks consist chiefly of alter- 
nate formations of sandstone and limestone, but it is probable that 
in Martin County, where the ancient shore is approached, the lime- 
stones give way in part to shales and sandstones. As has been ex- 
plained in the report on Faribault County, there is no evidence that 
the Carboniferous extends into Minnesota. 

Yield, head, and quality of the water. — At no great depth beneath 
the glacial drift occur the Cretaceous and Paleozoic sandstones which 
have just been discussed. Though they have not yet been explored 
in this county, there is no doubt that they will furnish large supplies 
of water, except possibly in the northwestern corner. 

There is little probability that flowing wells can be obtained from 
the deep beds of this county, but the water may generally be expected 
to rise about as high as that from the lower portion of the drift. In 
the northern and eastern parts it will come near the surface, but in the 
high area comprising the southwestern part it will remain at a depth 
of more than 100 feet. At Blue Earth the water rises within 32 feet 
of the surface, or 1,050 feet above sea level; at St. James, within 32 
feet of the surface, or 1,053 feet above sea level; in the sandstone 
wells in this county, within 50 or 100 feet of the surface; and at 
Estherville, Iowa, within 120 feet of the surface, or about 1,165 feet 
above sea level. 

It is probable that the deep water is as hard or even harder than 
that from the glacial drift. (See the reports on Watonwan and Fari- 
bault counties.) 

a Norton, W. H., Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Iowa, vol. 3, 1S92, pp. ISO and 187. 



MAETTN COUNTY. 263 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Fairmont. — Fairmont is situated just east of Center Chain of 
Lakes in a locality characterized by an irregular morainic topography. 
The following log of the new well at the high school presents a typical 
section of the upper portion of the glacial drift, the total thickness of 
which is here rather great. 

Well section at Fairmont. 
[Authority, Brown & Wilkins, drillers, Fairmont.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Soil 

Yellow clay. 
Blue clay — 
Gravel 



Feet. 

3 

20 
87 

3 



Feet. 

3 

23 

110 

113 



The public waterworks are supplied from Lake Budd. About 
1,500 people use the water, and it is also used in the locomotives of 
the railway companies. Altogether about 120,000 gallons is con- 
sumed daily. Nearly all the people use water from private wells for 
drinking and culinary purposes. Most of the private wells are 2 
inches in diameter and end in beds of sand and gravel at various 
depths, most of them being between 60 and 100 feet deep. There are 
also some shallow bored and dug wells. The ground water is hard, 
as is shown by the analyses given in the table (p. 265). 

Sherburn. — West Chain of Lakes lies just east of Sherburn vil- 
lage. The glacial drift is here at least 250 feet thick. The section 
reported for the village well is as follows: 

Well section at Sherburn. 
[Authority, William Tenhofl, superintendent of public waterworks, Sherburn,] 



j Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Yellow clay , 


Feet. 
20 


Feet. 
20 


Blue clay 


110 


130 


Sand 


4 


134 




104 


238 


Sand.. .'. 


m 


248 


Blue clay (entered). 





The data in regard to this well have already been given. The 
analysis in the table (p. 265) shows that the water is not so highly 
mineralized as much of the water in this region. The public supply 
is used by about 250 people, and approximately 13,000 gallons is 
consumed daily. At least 75 per cent of the inhabitants rely on 
private wells, which are generally shallow and provide small quanti- 
ties of water. There are, however, a few drilled wells, the deepest of 



264 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

which yield abundant and permanent supplies. The railway com- 
pany takes water from Temperance Lake; the creamery is supplied 
from a well 180 feet deep; and at the mill the public supply is used at 
present. 

Welcome. — In many parts of the village of Welcome sand and 
gravel are found at depths of 20 to 40 feet, beneath which there is 
blue clay to about 150 feet. Other layers of sand occur below this 
depth. The public waterworks are at present supplied from a com- 
bined dug and drilled well that reaches to the 150-foot sand stratum, 
but because of faulty construction its yield is not great. Nearly all 
the people use water from private wells, most of which are bored or 
dug to depths of 20 to 40 feet and end in the deposit of sand and 
gravel mentioned above. In some parts of the village this deposit is 
absent, and wells are drilled to the deeper beds or get meager supplies 
from sandy seams at intermediate levels. In the table below analyses 
are given of the public supply and of water from the mill well, which 
is 40 feet deep. 

Ceylon. — The waterworks at Ceylon are supplied from a drilled 
well 8 inches in diameter and 300 feet deep. Pumping from this well 
at the rate of 100 gallons a minute is said to produce no noticeable 
effect. Nearly all the people use water from private sources. The 
dug and bored wells end in yellow clay at depths of about 20 to 40 
feet and furnish moderate supplies; the drilled wells are deeper and 
yield more abundantly. 

Truman. — The village of Truman has a system of public water- 
works supplied from an 8-inch well, which is 104 feet deep and in 
which the water rises virtually to the surface. The inhabitants 
depend almost entirely on private wells. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

There are two types of wells corresponding to the two groups of 
water-bearing beds in the drift mentioned above (p. 259) — (1) shallow 
bored or dug wells, which are generally less than 40 feet deep and 
end in yellow clay or sandy deposits above the impervious blue clay ; 
and (2) drilled wells, with iron casings, which end in strata of sand 
and gravel interbedded with the blue cla}^. The yield from first type 
of wells is generally small and uncertain; it is brought to a maximum 
by making the wells of large diameter, with casings of wood or tile 
that will admit water at all depths. When the county was first 
settled these wells were depended on entirely, but they were found 
to be unreliable in dry years and to be otherwise unsatisfactory. 
The drilled wells range in depth from about 50 to 300 feet, but are 
generally between 75 and 175 feet. Their average depth is greatest 
in the western and southwestern parts of the county, where wells 



MARTTN COUNTY. 



265 



between 200 and 300 feet deep are not rare, and least in the eastern 
and northeastern parts, where the average depth is perhaps not more 
than 100 feet. The yield is generally large and is not seriously 
affected by drought. Most of the wells are only 2 inches in diameter 
and are finished with screens, which cause much trouble by becoming 
incrusted. Wells of such small diameter should not be drilled in 
this county except where flows are expected. 

'■ SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The deeper beds of sand and gravel in the drift furnish adequate 
supplies for all ordinary purposes and will probably always be the 
chief source of water. At greater depths lie sandstones which will 
yield copiously but whose water will rise no higher than that from 
more shallow sources, so that virtually no hope is offered that flows 
could be obtained in them. Moreover, much of the water from deep 
beds is very hard, and there is no evidence that any of it is softer than 
that now used from the more shallow beds. 

Mineral analyses of water in Martin County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet.. 

Diameter of well 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Iron and aluminum 

oxides (Fe203+ 

A1 2 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle(C03) 
Bicarbonate radicle 

(HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle(S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3). 
Total solids 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.) 



322 



100 



5so 
19 
1.5 



7 
181 
28 



466 

425 

6 



70 
2 
24 
2.6 



5.1 

140 
54 



.0 

259 
3*9 

4 

1.5 
772 



100 
2 



210 
61 



.529 

524 

5 



1,158 



90 



4.1 
197 
58 



496 
556 
3.6 



1,182 



150 
Large 
23 
1 



3.3 
137 
67 



495 
367 

47 

4 

1,018 



185 
2 



212 
59 



468 

SON 

3 



1,522 



248 



2.5 
117 
32 



307 

233 

4 



(?) 



11. 12. 13 



205 



2.1 
121 

47 



10] 

415 
23.5 



296 
6,4 



186 
58 



49 



454 

415 

4 



%>,:> 



404 
6 



9 
218 



466 

598 

3 



1. Railway well at Fox Lake on the shore of the lake. September 20, 1899. 

2. Mill well at Welcome. September 20, 1901. 

3. Flowing well on the farm of M. E. Davidson, NE. \ sec. 28, T. 103 N., R. 29 W. July 15, 1907. 

4. Well of George Clynick, SW. J sec. 33, T. 104 N., R. 29 W. July 15, 1907. 

5. Well at the livery stable at Granada. September 20, 1901. 

6. Former well of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company at Fairmont. November 
2 1892 

' 7. Well at Fairmont. October 25, 1888. 

8. Village well at Welcome. July 23, 1907. 

9. Former village well at Welcome. September 20, 1901. 

10. Village well at Sherburn. July 23, 1907. 

11. Village well at Sherburn. November 15, 1895. 

12. Village well at Sherburn. June 30, 1899. 

13. Village well at Sherburn. July 23, 1901. 

14. Former city well at Fairmont. March 21, 1894. 

Analyses 3, 4, 8, and 10 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, chemist 
Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, and 14 were furnished by G. N. Pren- 
tiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. Analysis 1 was furnished by 6. M. 
Davidson chemist Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company. 



266 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

MEEKER COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Meeker County presents the following three types 
of topography, which correspond to different underground water con- 
ditions: (1) The irregular, morainic relief that characterizes most of 
the county; (2) the gently undulating surface that occurs only in 
the southern part; and (3) the large, sandy plain in the center of 
the county and similar smaller level areas. North Branch of Crow 
River crosses the northern and South Branch the southern part of 
the county, both draining toward the Mississippi. They have few 
tributaries and the surface is but imperfectly drained. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift consists of impervious bowlder 
clay and beds of sand and gravel. The sand and gravel beds are inter- 
mingled with the clay in various ways, and in this county are espe- 
cially prominent at the surface in the level tracts already mentioned. 
The drift covers the entire county, no outcrops of older rocks being 
known, but so few deep wells have been drilled that there is little 
information on which to base an estimate of its thickness. At 
Eden Valley underlying formations have been encountered at a 
depth of 200 feet, and in several other localities in the northern part 
at depths of 100 to 200 feet; 6 miles north of this county the rocks 
come to the surface. In the southern part the drift is thicker, how- 
ever, so that the average for the county is perhaps not far from 250 
feet. 

Yield of water. — The porous beds of sand and gravel are usually 
saturated with water which they give up readily. Thin deposits 
near the surface are liable to fail in dry years, but those which lie 
at greater depths, as well as the thick beds at the surface, are little 
affected by drought. 

Head of the water. — The irregular, morainic topography of a large 
part of this country is likely to give rise to small areas in which flow- 
ing wells with slight pressure can be obtained. Such areas are usu- 
ally found on the lowest ground near streams and lakes, at the foot 
of high, morainic belts. There are several flowing wells on the hill- 
side north of Eden Valley, and others could probably be obtained 
from the same zone in the village. A few are found along North 
Branch of Crow River in the vicinity of Forest City, between Eden 
Valley and Litchfield ; one has been reported on the east side of Swan 
Lake, northeast of Dassel, and another west of Stella Lake, about 4 

a Upham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, pi. 40. 



MEEKER COUNTY. 267 

miles west of Darwin. There are also several on the low ground 
between Strout and Rosendale, south of Grove City. 'Flowing wells 
could no doubt be obtained in other depressed localities. 

Quality of the water. — The underground waters differ chiefly in the 
quantity of sulphates which they contain. In this important 
respect they differ widely, but in a systematic manner, as is shown 
by the table of mineral analyses (p. 271). The water from shallow 
sources contains a large amount of sulphates associated with much 
calcium and magnesium, so that it has a permanent hardness and 
produces hard scale in boilers; but the water from the deeper sources 
contains only small quantities of sulphates, with less calcium and 
magnesium, and will form less hard scale. This second type is 
found nearer the surface in the northern than in the southern part of 
the county. 

The shallow water is all hard, but that from the sand and gravel 
interbedded with the bowlder clay is somewhat harder than that 
from the sandy deposits at the surface. 

FORMATIONS BENEATH THE GLACIAL DRIFT. 

Description. — About 8 miles north of this county the granitic 
rocks are exposed; in the village of Eden Valley they were struck at a 
depth of 300 feet, and in several other wells in the northern part of the 
county at 200 to 300 feet; in Grove City they were probably pene- 
trated a few hundred feet in a well which went to a depth of nearly 
700 feet ; and in the village of Buffalo Lake, south of this county, they 
were found to lie about 340 feet below the surface. From these data 
it seems safe to infer that throughout the northern and western 
parts granite exists within a few hundred feet of the surface and 
lies immediately beneath the drift or is separated from it by a rela- 
tively thin series of stratified rocks. 

On the other hand, at Glencoe, 15 miles southeast of this county, 
about 1,300 feet of sandstone and other sedimentary rocks have been 
penetrated, and a depth of 1,640 feet below the surface, or 645 feet 
below sea level, has been reached without encountering granite. 
From Grove City and Eden Valley to Glencoe these stratified forma- 
tions must therefore thicken rapidly, and the granitic surface must 
descend with relative abruptness. It is thus possible that the south- 
eastern part of Meeker County is underlain by a thick sedimentary 
series. 

The stratigraphic formations between the granite and the drift 
may be Cretaceous, Paleozoic, or Algonkian. From 6 to 10 miles 
beyond the northern boundary of the county there are outcrops of 
beds consisting chiefly of shale, in which Cretaceous fossils have been 
discovered. a In several wells in the northern and western portions 

a Kloos, J. H., Am. Jour. Sei., 3d ser., vol. 3, 1872, pp. 17-26. 



268 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

of this count)' shales, etc., probably of the same age, have been 
entered, but there is no evidence that Cretaceous rocks exist in the 
eastern or southern parts. The great thickness of sediments found 
at Glencoe comprises chiefly Paleozoic and Algonkian strata, and 
these may extend into this county. After the Paleozoic formations 
had been deposited and had been subjected to long erosion the 
Cretaceous seas probably encroached on the region from the west 
and spread a thin deposit over the older rocks. 

At Eden Valley the following section has been reported for a deep 
well drilled for the railway company: 

Well section at Eden Valley. 
[Authority, J. V. McCarthy, driller, Minneapolis.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Clay, etc 

Fine sandstone 

Black shale 

Granitic formation. 



Feet. 
200 

70 
30 
60 



Feet. 
200 
270 
300 
300 



From the data at hand it is impossible to determine whether the 
sandstone and shale in this section should be correlated with the 
Cretaceous or the Paleozoic. 

Yield, head, and quality of the water. — At Glencoe the sandstone 
provides liberal quantities of water, but it has not yet been ascer- 
tained to what extent this series is developed in Meeker County. 
In the railway well at Eden Valley, whose section is given above, the 
supply from the sandstone stratum was tested at 15 gallons a minute; 
in the northwestern part of the county other wells have been drilled 
to granite without passing through any water-bearing sandstone. 
In no locality can flowing wells be obtained by deep drilling. The 
Paleozoic rocks afford fairly good boiler water, but probably not 
better than that from the deeper beds of the drift. Compare the 
analyses in the accompanying table (p. 271) with those given in the 
report on McLeod County. 

The granite is not water bearing, except that small supplies are 
rarely procured from the altered upper portion. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Litchfield. — Litchfield lies in the midst of an extensive plain under- 
lain by a deposit of sand and gravel, which at present furnishes the 
entire water supply. Beneath this deposit lies the bowlder clay of 
the glacial drift. The public supply is derived from a system of 
twenty-eight 2-inch driven wells about 42 feet deep, which end in 
sand, the water rising to a level 20 feet below the surface. Pumping 
by suction from all these wells combined at the rate of 600 gallons 



MEEKER COUNTY. 269 

a minute for several hours continuously produces no noticeable 
effect on the level. , About 500 people use the water, and 60,000 
gallons is reported to be consumed daily. Fully three-fourths of the 
inhabitants depend on private wells, nearly all of which are driven 
to depths of 25 to 45 feet and yield generously. The railway com- 
pany is also supplied by a shallow well. The water from the sand 
and gravel near the surface is hard and will produce considerable 
scale in boilers. This is shown by an analysis of the water from 
J. T. McNulty's well, which is given in the table. There are some 
indications that better water could be obtained by drilling deeper. 

Basset. — The village of Dassel lies in the midst of a morainic area 
with an irregular surface and numerous small lakes. The following 
section is reported for the upper 65 feet: 

Well section at Dassel. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Feet. 

Yellow clay 20 

Blue clay - - - - > 20 

Sand i 10 

Blue clay - - - ' 12 

"Hardpan' (a few inches thick) \ , 

Sand and gravel (water) ". J 



Feet. 
20 
40 
50 
62 

65 



Beds of sand also lie at depths of 120 and 180 feet, the deeper bed 
furnishing much water. The public supply is taken from a well 
8 inches in diameter and ISO feet deep, which is finished with a screen. 
The water rises to a level 55 feet below the surface, or 1,034 feet above 
the sea, and pumping has been continued for eighteen hours at the 
rate of 45 gallons a minute. The water has considerable temporary 
but little permanent hardness and will not produce much hard scale 
in boilers. An analysis will be found in the table. 

Eden Valley. — The valley in which the village of Eden Valley lies 
is partly filled with alluvial sand and gravel, saturated with water, 
and most of the wells are driven to a depth of about 30 feet in these 
deposits. The public supply is obtained from a system of nine 
2^-inch wells, one of which is 28 feet and the others 44 feet deep. 
The water rises to a level about 15 feet below the surface, and the 
combined system of wells has been tested at 75 gallons a minute. 
Approximately 5,000 gallons is consumed daily. The railway com- 
pany has abandoned the deep well the section of which is given 
above, and at present uses shallow water. According to the anafyses 
contained in the table below, the deep drift water is better for boiler 
purposes than that from shallow sources. 

Grove City. — The village well now in use at Grove City is nearly 
700 feet deep. No reliable record was kept, but the drill seems to 
have passed through several hundred feet of glacial drift, then 



270 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

through strata of shale and sandstone, and finally through a con- 
siderable thickness of partly decomposed granite. The well was at 
first finished in such a manner that water could enter only from 
the bottom, when it yielded but 16 gallons a minute. The casing 
was then cut at the sand and gravel zone found between the depths 
of 220 and 260 feet, and a 30-foot brass screen was inserted, after 
which the well was successfully tested at 75 gallons a minute. The 
water now rises to a level 57 feet below the surface, or 1,150 feet 
above the sea. About four-fifths of the inhabitants use water from 
shallow private wells. The analyses given in the table show that 
the water from the deep zone which supplies the waterworks is not 
as hard as the shallow water that is tapped by the private wells. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

There are three principal types of farm wells — -driven, bored or dug, 
and drilled. The driven wells are confined to the level tracts where 
the sand and gravel are at the surface, and the very shallow and 
inexpensive wells of this type usually yield generously. Shallow- 
bored and dug wells still exist in large numbers and are widely dis- 
tributed, though especially characteristic of the morainic areas. 
There are also many drilled wells, especially in the eastern and north- 
ern parts of the county, and these generally afford abundant supplies. 
They have a wide range in depth, about 100 feet being the most 
common. Nearly all are 2 inches in diameter and are finished with 
screens. In the southern part of the county these screens generally 
become incrusted in the course of several years, but in the northern 
part it seldom so happens. In the northern part the water from 
the drift has not much permanent hardness, and this is also true of 
the water from the lower portion of the drift in the southern part. 
The suggestion is therefore made that in the latter region there would 
be an advantage in drilling deeper than is usually done at present, 
both to get softer water and to diminish the ctifficulty with the screens. 
This difficulty can also be obviated in great measure by drilling wells 
of larger diameter. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Water-bearing sandstone may be present in the southeastern part 
of the county at a depth of several hundred feet, but this has not 
been proved by actual drilling. Where it is present it will yield a 
fairly good quality of boiler water, but probably not better than the 
deeper portions of the drift. It will nowhere give rise to flows. 

The most significant fact to be noted here is that the water from 
the shallow sources is generally poorer for boiler purposes than that 
from the deposits at some depth. 



MOWER COUNTY. 



271 



Mineral analyses of water in Meeker County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches. . 

Silica (SiOa) 

Iron (Pe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe203+ AI2O 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



Surface deposits. 



Surface sand 
and gravel. 



44 
2; 
24 

.5 
2.4 
93 
27 
20 
.0 
327 
94 
11 
2.5 
439 



40 
2 
25 
.2 
1.2 
115 
32 
21 
.0 
293 
166 
36 

.0 
550 



Upper 
portion 

of 
glacial 
drift. 



60 



32 
Trace. 
4.8 
154 
32 
25 



400 
183 
27 
20 

C84 



.0 



Lower portion of 
glacial drift. 



130 

2 
27 

1.2 

6.4 
88 
27 



420 
14 
3 

382' 



.2 

2.4 



429 
15 



399 



250± 

8 

28 

1 

3.2 
69 
24 
21 
.0 
356 
26 
2.5 
.0 
349 



1. Village wells at Eden Valley. October 10, 1907. 

2. Well of J. T. McNulty at Litchfield. September 21, 1907. 

3. Well on West Main street at Grove City. This well belongs to the municipality, but has no connec- 
tion with the waterworks. September 21, 1907. 

4. Well of James McCane, near Eden Valley, on the NW. \ sec. 10, T. 121 N., R. 31 W. October 10, 1907. 

5. Village well at Dassel. September 20, 1907. 

6. Village well at Grove City. This is the well that supplies the public waterworks. September 21, 1907. 
The above analyses were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, chemist 

Minnesota state board of health. 

MOWER COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Mower County is among the highest and flattest of the counties in 
southeastern Minnesota. Its surface extends for miles with hardly 
an irregularity to catch the eye. The highest part is a broad, flat 
swell, which is crossed by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Rail- 
way in the vicinity of Dexter, where the elevation is 1,416 feet above 
sea level, or 786 feet above the Mississippi at La Crosse. From this 
vicinity the land declines with a gentle slope to an altitude of 1,300 
feet near the eastern boundary, and to about 1,200 feet along Cedar 
River near the western edge. The valley of the Cedar is the only 
one of consequence in the county, and its bottom is generally less 
than 100 feet below the level of the adjacent prairie tract. Other 
streams flow in shallow depressions or meander about over the prairie, 
not yet having cut valleys. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The surface deposits include ordinary glacial drift, outwash gravels, 
and recently deposited alluvium. The whole surface of Mower 
County, except at one or two points in the stream valleys, is covered 
by glacial drift, which has a thickness ranging up to 50 ,feet in the 
valley of Cedar River, from 75 to 100 feet along the eastern margin 



272 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

of the county, and from 150 to more than 200 feet in the central por- 
tion. The drift generally yields sufficient water for domestic and 
farm purposes. 

Outwash gravels occur along the course of Cedar River. They are 
probably not more than 50 feet thick and contain moderate amounts 
of water. They supply domestic and farm wells at a number of 
points. 

The alluvium deposited by the present streams is of minor im- 
portance in this county, being limited to narrow belts of no great 
thickness. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Devonian consists of a lower fine-grained dolomitic limestone 
and an upper shaly sandstone. The former underlies the greater 
part of the southern half of the county, except in the valleys of 
Cedar River and Rose Creek, in which the streams appear to have 
cut through the limestone. The sandstone, which is known as the 
" Austin rock," occurs immediately beneath the drift in the central 
and northwestern portions of the county. Its thickness has nowhere 
been definitely measured, but probably does not exceed 50 feet. 
Though not especially porous, this sandstone has yielded good sup- 
plies at several points, the volume in some places being sufficient for 
industrial and public supplies. 

The Maquoketa, Galena, Decorah, and Platteville formations prob- 
ably have a considerable combined thickness, but they have not been 
positively recognized in the county. They probably lie below the 
drift throughout a belt several miles wide in the northeastern part 
of the county. 

Beneath the rocks already described no doubt occurs the entire 
Paleozoic sequence of southeastern Minnesota, older than the Platte- 
ville limestone. The separate formations are described in connection 
with the several counties in which they lie at the surface. A sec- 
tion of the formations at Austin is embodied in the following record 
of the deepest city well. Compare with this the record of the city 
well, 260 feet deep, published by the Geological Survey of Minnesota. 

Section of city well at Austin b 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift: 

Surface soil and loam 

Sand and gravel 

Clay and sand 

Paleozoic formations: 

Light-colored limestone (arenaceous) 

Dark-colored limestone 

"Mud vein " (water-bearing) 

Dark-colored limestone, etc. (Maquoketa and Galena) 

Shale, etc. (Galena) 

White, fine-grained sandstone (St. Peter) 

Dolomite and sandstone (Shakopee, New Richmond, Oneota). 



Feet. 
5 
17 
12 

4 

45 

2 

340 

55 

105 

125 



Feet. 
5 
22 

34 

38 
83 
85 
425 
480 
585 
710 



a N. H. Winchell, Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1885, p. 16. 
6 Furnished by Prof. Andrew Nelson. 



MOWER COUNTY. 273 

Throughout the county the St. Peter sandstone will yield large 
and permanent supplies, as will also the several sandstones at greater 
depths. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — The wells of Mower County are of four general classes: 
The first embraces the shallow wells ending in glacial drift; the 
second, the drilled weUs which end in the deeper portions of the 
glacial drift; the third, the shallower rock wells reaching the Devo- 
nian sandstone in the southern and the St. Peter in the northern 
parts of the county; and the fourth, the deep rock wells. The shal- 
lowest wells are generally dug or bored, the water being obtained in 
sandy or gravelly layers in the drift and, in a few wells, in the Paleo- 
zoic rocks at a depth of from 10 to 40 feet. Where the drift is thick, 
it supplies many drilled wells. These average more than 100 feet in 
depth, and some of the deepest ones exceed 200 feet. Where the 
drift is thin, the supplies of water which it yields are not satisfactory, 
and rock wells are relied on, most of them obtaining their supplies 
from the Devonian sandstone or the sandstone lenses in the Galena 
and Platteville, though in some places, as at Austin, wells have been 
sunk to the St. Peter sandstone, from which large supplies of good 
water are procured. 

Head of the water. — The head of the water in the shallow drift wells 
conforms in a general way to the topography. In the southeastern 
corner of the county there are several flowing wells which belong to 
the artesian areas of the vicinity of Chester, Iowa. In the deeper 
wells there is much greater variation in the head relative to the sur- 
face. At Austin the water from the St. Peter, Platteville, and Galena 
rises within 10 feet of the surface, or about 1,185 feet above sea level; 
at Rose Creek, which lies 90 feet higher than Austin, the water from 
the Devonian sandstone stands 130 feet below the surface, or about 
1,165 feet above sea level. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Austin. — The public supply at Austin is derived from four wells, 
one 300 feet deep, and three ranging between 600 and 710 feet. There 
is also a well 175 feet deep which is no longer used. The wells are 
near to one another and are piped to flow into a cistern 22 feet deep, 
from which the water is pumped into the mains. The maximum 
combined daily yield is about 1,000,000 gallons. Nearly one-half of 
the people use the public supply, and about 500,000 gallons is con- 
sumed each day. 

Adams. — The public supply at Adams is drawn from a well 291 
feet deep, ending in Devonian rock, and is used by about two-thirds 
of the people. The rest depend chiefly upon shallow private wells. 
60920°— wsp 256—11 18 



274 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The depth to the St. Peter sandstone probably exceeds 500 feet, but 
ample supplies can be procured from rock formations nearer the 
surface. 

Grand Meadow. — The public supply at Grand Meadow is obtained 
from a well 125 feet deep, which probably ends in Devonian sand- 
stone. Most of the people depend on private wells. 

Le Roy. — The village of Le Roy is provided with a public supply 
drawn from a well 422 feet deep. The log of this well to a depth of 
382 feet, is as follows: 

Section of village well at Le Roy. 
[Authority, W. G. Banks.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Feet. 

Glacial drift ! 10 

Limestone and shale j 1G0 

Blue clay 45 

Sandstone 60 

Limestone and shale I 107 



Feet. 
10 
170 
215 
275 
382 



Rose Creek. — The public supply at Rose Creek is derived from a 
well which ends in what is supposed to be Devonian sandstone at a 
depth of 175 feet. This well has been tested at the rate of 100 gallons 
a minute. Most of the people are supplied from private wells. 

Lyle. — In this village the average thickness of the surface mate- 
rial scarcely exceeds 35 feet. A layer of sandstone and gravel within 
the Devonian furnishes most of the water. The public supply is 
drawn from a well 240 feet deep. Most of the people depend on 
private wells. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

In all parts of the county large and permanent supplies can be pro- 
cured from the St. Peter sandstone at a depth of several hundred feet, 
and it is probably never necessary to drill to the sandstones that lie 
still deeper. • For most purposes adequate supplies can be obtained 
from the glacial drift, Devonian sandstone, or Galena and Platte- 
ville arenaceous layers, before the St. Peter sandstone is reached. The 
water from all depths is moderately hard. Judging from analysis 9 
in the table below, the water from the St. Peter contains but little 
mineral matter that will form hard scale in boilers or that can not be 
removed by heating. 



MURRAY COUNTY. 



275 



Mineral analyses of water in Mower County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Surface deposits. 



2. 


3. 


12 


30 


97 


90 


32 


9.2 


8.6 


15 


306 


280 


133 


55 


2.8 


16 


430 


342 



Devonian, Galena, and 
Platteville. 



St. 
Peter 
sand- 
stone. 



Depth feet. 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium ( Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine(Cl) 

Total solids 



60 

21 

3 

276 

9 

2 

235 



15 
56 

58 
16 

190 
56 
25 

311 



226 
75 
24 
8.5 
302 
47 
4.1 
315 



135 

62 

21 

10 

296 

10 

5.2 

253 



272 

127 

11 

413 



243 

67 

15 

18 

316 

10 

.9 

245 



600 
69 
24 
7.2 
314 
17 
6.1 
279 



1. Hall's spring at Austin. May, 1901. 

2. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Ramsey October, 1892. 

3. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Le Roy. November, 1892. 

4. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Adams. December, 1892. 

5. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Dexter. October, 1892. 

6. Former city well at Austin. November, 1891. 

7. Old Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Austin. June, 1901. 

8. New Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Austin. August, 1901. 

9. City well at Austin. June, 1901. 

The above analyses were reported by G.N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway 
Company. 

MURRAY COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Murray County consists of a gently undulating, 
poorly drained prairie which slopes gradually from about 1,800 feet 
above sea level in the western part to less than 1,300 feet in the north- 
eastern. Two parallel moraines extend over this prairie with a 
northeast-northwest trend, the outer crossing the southwestern and 
the inner the northeastern part of the county. They have an irregu- 
lar, hummocky topography and rise distinctly above the surrounding 
country. The streams of the county have few tributaries, and the 
extensive interstream areas are covered with a network of swamps, 
ponds, and lakes, the largest of the latter being Lake Shetek, in the 
north-central part. Beaver Creek rises in the outer moraine and 
flows eastward to the inner, where it joins the outlet of Lake Shetek 
to form Des Moines River, which thence flows southeastward along 
the outer margin of the inner moraine. The area beyond the outer 
moraine is drained southwestward by Chanarambie Creek, which has 
cut a gorgelike valley ; the region inside of the inner moraine is drained 
in the opposite direction by Plum Creek, which likewise occupies a 
deep narrow valley. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — So far as is known, the glacial drift covers the older 
rocks at all points in the county, and throughout most of the region 
it is thick. A number of wells have been reported which end in drift 
at depths of more than 250 feet, and several over 400 feet deep also 



276 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

appear, from the sections furnished by the driller, to be entirely in the 
drift. No record has been received of any well in the western half of 
the county that has reached the underlying formations, but such 
wells are numerous in the northeastern and southeastern corners where 
the drift is relatively thin. See the list of rock wells given below. 
The sections shown in Plate XIII are typical of the drift in this 
county and are especially interesting in showing the existence of the 
interbedded layers of yellow cla}^. 

Yield of water. — The structure of the drift is to a great degree 
chaotic, and no water-bearing layer can be traced for a great distance. 
Thus the sections of two wells a mile apart may be quite different. 
Yet in nearly every locality one or more pervious beds exist which 
reserve ample stores of water. The 8-inch village well at Slay ton, 
205 feet deep, is pumped at the rate of 45 gallons a minute, and the 
6-inch village well at Currie, 120 feet deep, has been tested for thirty- 
six hours continuously at the rate of 60 gallons a minute. 

Head of the water. — Owing to differences in altitude there are im- 
portant differences in the depth at which the water stands below the 
surface. In the two high morainic belts it remains at considerable 
depths, especially in the deeper wells, but on the lower prairie land 
which comprises most of the county it usually rises nearly to the 
surface from all horizons. 

There are several small areas of flowing wells, which may be 
enumerated as follows (PI. IV) : 

1. The Badger Lake area. This is a small district surrounding 
Badger Lake, 2\ miles east of Iona. About six flowing wells, ranging 
between 85 and 110 feet in depth, have been drilled in this basin. 
The lowest has a good pressure, but reduces the head of those on 
higher ground. 

2. The Lime Creek area. There is a flowing well in the NE. \ sec. 
34, T. 106 N., R. 41 W., and one in the SE. \ sec. 24, T. 106 N., R. 
41 W. Others can be obtained along this stretch of Lime Creek. 

3. The Lake Wilson area. Three flowing wells have been drilled 
in the village of Lake Wilson. These are about 85 feet deep, have a 
head of several feet, and flow from 5 to 10 gallons a minute each. 

4. The Beaver Creek area. There is a flowing well 133 feet deep 
in the SE. \ sec. 4, T. 106 N., R. 42 W., and one 35 feet deep about 
1 mile north of Lake Wilson. It seems probable that others with 
slight pressure could be procured along this portion of Beaver Creek. 
There is also a flowing well 80 feet deep 2 miles north and 2 miles east 
of Lake Wilson, and one of the same depth a half mile farther east. 

There is little doubt that other depressed localities would afford 
wells in which the water would rise slightly above the surface. In a 
low area bordering a high morainic tract the water from the seams 
of sand beneath the blue bowlder clay is likely to rise approximately 
to the surficial ground-water level, and if a small portion of such an 




GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN SOUTHERN MURRAY AND NORTHERN NOBLES COUNTIES 
By O. E. M 

Willmont —Village well. Authority, G. J. Savidgc, driller. Wayne, Nebr. 

Xi.rilm.-.l "i :-'l"\-l"ii Well ! null im.il I ■.' 1,11 1, v. ,<l of Klaylon. on 

farmofD.F. McCarval. Authorities, Clauson & Anderson, dnllera, Hadley. 

Slayton.— Village well; approximate. 

Near Avoca.-Well near Avoca, in NW. J so,-. 7, T. 105 N.. R. 40 W.; 
approximate. 



Fulda.-Village well at Fulda. Authority, William Denny driller Fulda 

N..„r I r, ,.| .- Well ,i ' I i.-rnrt X\V 1 see. II,. I. in. -V. !,..,.) 

\Y.; approximate. Autliorily. John Ilurnai, driller, I iirne ,„„,„,„ 

Tin-altitude ,,1'lhe second. fourth. and 81 xthsectionsareoulyapproximately 
known. 



MURRAY COUNTY. 277 

area is still further depressed (for example, in the valley of a stream 
or the basin occupied by a lake), the conditions are favorable for 
procuring flows. It is impossible to predict in advance the localities 
where flows can certainly be obtained, but it is possible to determine 
for any given district whether or not there is a reasonable chance. 
For example, in the village well at Currie the water is reported to 
rise within 20 feet of the top, and the surface is here fully 30 feet 
above the valley. If the zone from which this well is supplied ex- 
tends below the valley it will there produce flows, but the structure 
of the drift is so irregular that such an extension is by no means 
certain. 

Quality of the water. — All the analyses given in the accompanying 
table (p. 280) represent water from the glacial drift, except No. 12, 
which is the analysis of a sample taken from the top of the quartzite 
but also containing the constituents derived from the drift. Though 
they vary widely they are all highly mineralized and all hold great 
quantities of calcium and magnesium with large amounts of both 
bicarbonate and sulphate radicles. The water from very shallow 
sources is not so hard as that from greater depths, but still is by no 
means good for boiler purposes. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

There is little doubt that most of this county is underlain by 
shales and sandstones of Cretaceous age, though, because of the 
general thickness of the drift, they have seldom been penetrated in 
drilling. Owing to the high altitude of most of the county the 
water which they contain will generally stand far below the surface. 
In the northeastern corner, however, the Cretaceous lies at no great 
depth and its water will rise very nearly to the surface. Most of the 
water is very hard, but the soft-water wells in Lyon, Redwood, and 
Cottonwood counties give reason for believing that zones of relatively 
soft wattr extend also into this county. At Walnut Grove, 2 miles 
north of the county line, water almost free from calcium and mag- 
nesium, but rich in alkali sulphates, occurs 300 feet below the surface, 
or 900 feet above the sea, and also at other levels; just east of this 
county the same type of water was- found at a depth of 570 feet, or 
about 850 feet above the sea. More extended discussions of these 
formations will be found in the reports on Lyon, Redwood, Nobles, 
and Cottonwood counties. 

SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

In the southeastern part of the county the Sioux quartzite, or 
"red rock," lies relatively near the surface. The following table 
contains a list of several wells in the district which pass through the 
drift and penetrate this rock: 



278 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Table of rock tuells in Murray County. 



Depth to 
rock. 



Depth 
rock was 
pene- 
trated. 



Total 
depth 
of well. 



NW. i sec. 7, T. 105 N., R. 40 W 

Fulda village well 

SW. a sec. 17, T. 105 N., R. 40 W 
NE. i sec. 36, T. 105 N., R. 40 W 
SW. i sec. 16, T. 105 N., R. 39 W 

Two miles east of Fulda 

SE. | sec. 28, T. 105 N, R. 39 W. 
NE. J sec. 28, T. 105 N, R. 39 W 



Feet. 
230 
207 
238 
208 
230 
136 
100 
100 



Feet. 



Feet. 



244 
"227 
241 
222 

245 
146 



The head and quality of the water is similar to that of the drift 
in the same locality. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Slayton. — The records of deep drillings seem to show that in the 
locality of Slayton the glacial drift is uncommonly thick. An 
approximate section of the 8-inch well which furnishes the public 
supply is given in Plate XIII. The yield of this well has already 
been indicated (p. 276). It is finished with a screen, and its water 
rises within 50 feet of the surface. The water is hard, as is shown 
by the analysis given in the table, but it is otherwise good and is 
used by about 600 people, on an average 15,000 gallons being con- 
sumed in one day. The private wells are for the most part very 
shallow and provide small and uncertain supplies of rather poor 
water. 

Fulda. — The quartzite at Fulda lies at a depth of about 200 feet, 
above which there is glacial drift of unusually various structure. 
The section of the village well is given in Plate XIII. This well is 
6 and 8 inches in diameter and yields generously. The water rises to 
a level about 40 feet below the surface, or 1,467 feet above the sea. 
It is very hard, as is shown by the analysis in the table (p. 280). The 
private wells are of both the drilled and the bored types and range 
in depth from about 10 to 220 feet. 

Currie. — The data at hand show that the glacial drift is deep in 
this locality. The following is the section of the 6-inch village well, 
the head and yield of which are given above. 

Well section at Currie. 





[Authority, John Durnan, driller, Currie.J 








Thick- 
ness.- 


Depth. 




Feet. 
20 
80 

2 
10 

8 


Feet. 
20 




100 




102 




112 




120 


Blue clay. 





MURRAY COUNTY. 9,gJ 

The analysis in the table shows that the water from this well is very 
hard. Perhaps 80 per cent of the people rely on private wells, most 
of which are bored or dug and are very shallow. 

Iona. — The well that furnishes the public supply in Iona village is 
6 inches in diameter and 204 feet deep and is provided with a brass 
screen where the water is admitted. The section is somewhat similar 
to that of the village well at Slay ton. There is yellow clay at the 
surface, underlain by blue clay to a depth of 185 feet, below which 
there is much sand and gravel. The water rises to a level about 35 
feet below the surface, or about 1,595 feet above the sea, and the 
supply is copious and permanent. About one-half of the people 
depend on private wells, which are generally bored to depths of 20 to 
40 feet and afford rather small quantities of water. Both the mill 
and the creamery are supplied from wells that end in the same bed as 
the village well. All the water is hard, but if analyses 4 and 9 in 
the table can be taken as typical that from the 200-foot zone is even 
more highly mineralized than the shallow water. 

Avoca. — In Avoca village the entire population is supplied from 
private wells of the usual shallow type. Formerly the public water- 
works depended on a well which was about 400 feet deep and tapered 
from 5 inches in diameter at the top to 1 \ inches at the bottom. This 
well has failed entirely and one 3 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep has 
been bored for temporary use. The railwa}^ company takes water 
from Lime Lake. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

There are two types of farm wells, bored and drilled. The former 
are usually shallow, have a large diameter, and are cased with wood 
or tile. The latter are from 2 to 6 inches in diameter and from 50 to 
500 feet in depth, most being between 100 and 200 feet. When the 
county was first settled all the wells were either dug or bored and 
very shallow, but these have gradually been replaced by the deeper 
drilled wells, until at present the latter are found on most of the 
farms. As the screens in the 2-inch wells cause trouble by becoming 
incrusted, wells of larger diameter are recommended. This subject 
is fully discussed under the heading " Finishing wells in sand " (pp. 
82-83). 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The glacial drift is so thick and contains so much water that it will 
perhaps always be the most valuable source of supply, but beneath 
the drift (everywhere except in the southeastern part), there is prob- 
ably a series of shale and sandstone which also bears water. The 
water from both drift and sandstone is in most places very hard, but 
there is a prospect of obtaining soft water from the sandstone; this 
matter can be investigated further by referring to the reports on 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Lyon, Redwood, and Cottonwood counties. Except possibly in the 
extreme northeast, flowing wells are nowhere to be expected from the 
sandstone. 

Mineral analyses of water in Murray County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet. 

Diameter of well inches. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron(Fe) 

Aluminum (Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe20 3 +A.l 2 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K)...« 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3)... 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine(Cl) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.). 



6.5 
105 
35 



3.71 
233 
4 



40 
36 

9.4 
.25 

5.1 



659 
70 

102 
8 

S26 



6.4 
140 
40 



427 
161 



587 



120 

6 

2S 

.5 

6.1 



231 
94 



390 

849 

4 

1,525' 



2H4 
120 



440 
1,092 



1,865 



2 

177 
55 



490 
531 
34 



1,211 



204 
6 
19 



358 



605 

662 

102 

8 

1,599 



205 

25 

.4 
6.51 



206 
4i 



241 
57 



513 

433 

5 



2 

299 
101 

130 



.0 



432 

! 1 , 038 

10 



1,054 ,1,792 



227 
8-6 
24 
.5 



3.2 

249 

95 

143 

.0 
361 
969 

7 

2.5 



Railway well at Lake Wilson. October 25, 1901 . 

Railway well at Currie. October 3, 1900. 

Railway well at Chandler. October 5, 1902. 

Well at the Iona Hotel at Iona. July 25, 1907. 

Village flowing well at Lake Wilson. August 7, 1907. 

Village well at Currie. August 8, 1907. 

"Springer & Mendrickson's well" at Fulda. October 30, 1902. 

Railway well at Avoca. October 25, 1901. 

Village well at Iona. July 25, 1907. 

, Village well at Slay ton. August 7, 1907. 

, Village well at Fulda. February 22, 1896. 

. Village well at Fulda. July 26, 1907. 



Analyses 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 12 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, 
chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1, 2, and 8 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist 
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway Company. Analyses 3, 7, and 11 were furnished by 
G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 

NICOLLET COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller.' 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Nicollet County forms a part of an extensive prairie region. There 
is no morainic belt in the county, though there are several lakes that 
lie in shallow depressions. Minnesota River, which borders the 
county on its southwestern and southeastern sides, occupies a valley 
150 to 200 feet deep, but has only a few tributaries. Several creeks, 
such as Little Rock Creek in the west and Nicollet Creek in the 
south, drain the surface sluggishly and discharge into the Minnesota. 



SURFACE DEPOSITS. 



Alluvium. — The thickness of the alluvium in the Minnesota Valley 
is not known, but the fact that rocks show at the surface at many 
places indicates that it is not great. The claye} 7- portions will not 
supply much water, but the gravels yield generously. 



NICOLLET COUNTY. 281 

Terrace gravels. — At various levels along the course of Minnesota 
River the stream in its earlier stages removed large quantities of 
rock material from the successive formations, and thus as it cut 
deeper it left terraces of erosion covered with thin layers of coarse 
alluvial material. At present these terraces are inhabited by the 
people whose farming or commercial interests lie in the valley. 
Near the exposed edges the terrace gravels do not carry much water, 
but elsewhere they may contain considerable amounts. 

Glacial drift. — The glacial drift of Nicollet County is composed 
largely of clayey materials derived from the Cretaceous rocks to the 
northwest, but includes some bowlders from more remote sources. 
It covers nearly the entire county, the thickness varying from less 
than 100 feet at points near the edges of the bluff to 200 feet or 
more in the interior. At Oshawa the rock is reported at 285 feet 
below the surface, and there is reason to believe that it lies even 
deeper in the northwestern part of the county. Throughout the 
greater part of the area water can be obtained by shallow wells, but 
the depth to water increases toward the Minnesota Valley, into 
which the upper beds are drained. The deeper wells generally pene- 
trate 100 feet or more of hard clay and end in beds of sand or gravel, 
many of which yield large quantities of water. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Along Minnesota River, between the western extremity of the 
county and the city of St. Peter, there are a number of outcrops of 
different rock types, carrying fossil leaves, carbonized wood, and lig- 
nite. These are probably a continuation of the Cretaceous rocks 
found on the south side of the river near the mouth of the Cotton- 
wood, separated from them by the erosion of the Minnesota Valley. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The lower portion of the Prairie du Chien group outcrops along 
the west side of Minnesota River, both above and below St. Peter, 
and has a thickness probably of 50 feet or more along the eastern 
side of the county. How far it extends westward is not definitely 
known. 

The Jordan sandstone, which has a total thickness of about 80 feet, 
lies beneath the alluvium of Minnesota River for a considerable part 
of its course along the margin of this county. It is an important 
water-bearing bed and supplies many wells. 

The St. Lawrence formation, which probably exceeds 100 feet in 
thickness, outcrops along Minnesota River below Courtland, and in 
this region forms a belt several miles in width. It consists of a 
series of pink magnesian limestones, alternating with green shales 
and sandy layers that carry small amounts of water. 



282 



U N D E R( ! HOI ■ N D \V ATE RS OF SOU/!' II KH N M I N N ESOTA. 



The Dresbaeh sandstone probably lies immediately beneath the 
drift in most of the northern and western parts of the county, and 
constitutes the principal deep-water zone in, this region. Water is 
found in the entire thickness of the Dresbaeh sandstone and the 
underlying shales, and, owing to the compact character of the over- 
tying St. Lawrence, is under sufficient pressure to give rise to flows 
in the valley. 

WELL RECORDS. 

The following is the section of a well drilled in St. Peter at the 
State Hospital for the Insane. The top of the well is approximately 
S25 feet above sea level : 

Section of well at St. Peter. 

[Authority, J. F. McCarthy.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 

Surface soil and rock debris 8 

Limestone (Oneota?) 20 

Sandstone (Jordan?) 80 

Limestone and shale (St. Lawrence?) 100 

Sandstone (Dresbaeh?) and shale 290 



Depth. 



Feet. 

8 

28 

108 

205 

498 



The following is the section reported for the Chicago and North- 
western Railway well at Oshawa. The top of the well is 982 feet 
above sea level: 

Section of railway well at Oshawa. 
[Authority, P. P. Kennedy.] 



Soil 

Yellow clay 

Blue clay with 3-inch sand layer 

" Hardpan" (composed of gravel and sand ) . 

Quicksand (water) 

Limestone 

White sand (water) 

Hard quartz rock (not penetrated) 



Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Fed. 


Fid. 


3 


3 


15 


IS 


78 


90 


09 


165 


120 


285 


76 


361 


11 


372 



ALGONKIAN ROCKS. 

The Sioux quartzite, which contains only small quantities of water, 
comes to the surface over a small area in the valley east of New Ulm. 
A conglomerate 50 feet or more thick, which outcrops for several 
miles along the river in this locality, has hitherto been regarded as 
constituting a part of the Sioux quartzite, but is now believed by 
Prof. F. W. Sardeson to belong to a younger series . a It is possibly 
to be correlated, with the red elastic series found throughout the 
southeastern part of the State. 



a Sardeson, F. \\\, Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 19, 1908, p. 229. 



NOBLES COUNTY. 283 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 

The granitic rocks are found in Courtland Township, nearly oppo- 
site New Ulm, exposed in a low outcrop about 150 paces from the 
conglomerate and quartzite formations. These rocks are also in 
sight a few miles below Fort Ridgely and in a small exposure in the 
western extremity of the county, 2 miles west of Fort Ridgely. 
They probably lie at comparatively shallow depths throughout the 
entire western part of the county. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

St. Peter. — The city of St. Peter has a number of deep wells, all 
but one of which are'located in the valley a few feet above the flood 
plain of Minnesota River and flow vigorously. The two at the 
State Hospital for the Insane yield 250,000 and 375,000 gallons daily. 
They were first sunk to depths of 197 and 230 feet, but later became 
sluggish and were drilled to 450 and 498 feet. The section that they 
reveal is given above. 

A number of springs issue from the Oneota dolomite in this vicinity. 
At the Gustavus Adolphus College there is a large spring which is 
utilized by the college and many families in the vicinity. The pub- 
lic supply is obtained from an 8-inch flowing well, which is 362 feet 
deep and ends in the Dresbach sandstone. ■ Most of the people 
use water from private wells. 

Nicollet. — The village of Nicollet has a system of waterworks sup- 
plied from two wells 175 feet deep. Nearly all of the inhabitants 
use water from private wells. 

SUMMARY. 

The eastern part of the county is underlain by several porous 
sandstones which will yield large quantities of water. In the Min- 
nesota Valley the deepest of these give rise to strong flows, but on 
the upland the water must be lifted a considerable distance. In the 
western part of the county the sandstones are likely not to be pres- 
ent and the gravel beds of the drift must chiefly be relied on for water 
supplies. Hundreds of springs issue from the north flank of the 
Minnesota Valley all the way from Fort Ridgely to Le Sueur, draining 
the water from the outcropping strata and lowering the head for 
miles back from the valley. 

NOBLES COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Through the central portion of Nobles County, with a north-south 
or slight northwest-southeast trend, extends a morainic belt of 
irregular hummocky topography that rises prominently above the 



284 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

prairie on either side. From this elevated tract, which in the north 
reaches a height of more than 1,700 feet above sea level, the surface 
slopes gradually downward, the lowest parts of the county being 
in the northeastern and southwestern corners, where the altitude is 
about 1,450 feet above the sea. The region east of the moraine has 
a youthful topography and poor drainage. The principal streams 
have here cut only narrow valleys into the surface clay, and they 
have few tributaries, so that the interstream areas abound in lakes, 
ponds, and swamps. West of the moraine, on the contrary, there 
are few lakes, and the drainage is much better. The crest of the 
morainal ridge forms the divide between the Des Moines and Rock 
river systems, and the streams in the southeastern corner of the 
county drain into Little Sioux River. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift is well developed, but the data in 
regard to its thickness are meager. In much of the central and north- 
central parts it attains a depth of more than 300 feet, but in the 
northeastern and southwestern corners it is more attenuated. At 
Wilmont, in the village well, a depth of 345 feet was reached, at which 
level striated glacial pebbles were found (PI. XIII). At Worthington 
and Adrian, though no reliable data are at hand, the drift appears 
to be about 300 feet thick, and at Sibley, Iowa, 8 miles south of this 
county, it was found to have a thickness of 309 feet. a But at Ells- 
worth, near the southwestern corner of the county, underlying rocks 
were reached at a depth of only 190 feet, a and at many points near 
the northeastern corner they have been penetrated at depths of 
100 to 200 feet. No outcrops of older formations have been found 
in this county. 

Yield of water. — In nearly every locality the drift contains one or 
more beds of sand and gravel that will furnish large quantities of 
water. The 8-inch village well at Wilmont, the section of which is 
given in Plate XIII, was pumped at the rate of 95 gallons a minute 
for several hours continuously; the two 12-inch city wells at Worth- 
ington, which are 78 feet deep, have been tested by suction pumps 
placed at the surface, at the rate of several hundred gallons a minute; 
and the village well at Adrian, which is 10 feet in diameter and 47 
feet deep, has been pumped at the rate of 500 gallons a minute for 
one and a half hours without greatly lowering the water. 

Head of the water. — In the central and especially the north-central 
part of this county, where the altitude is high, the head relative to 
the surface is not regular, but the average level is low. In general, 
the water rises higher in the shallow wells than in the deeper ones, 

a Wilder, F. A., Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Iowa, vol. 10, 1899, pp. 108-109. 



NOBLES COUNTY. 285 

as is illustrated by the following three wells, which do not differ 
greatly in surface altitude: 

Relation of head of water to depth of wells near Wilmont. 

Depth to 
Location. "%£ "' top of 

water. 




Feet. 

SW. | sec. 34, T. 104 N., R. 42 W 1 197 40 

Village well at Wilmont 348 120 

SW.i sec. 1,T. 103 N.,R. 41 W a 572 230 

« This well extends into formations below the drift. 

On either side of the morainal ridge, where the altitude is lower, 
the water rises nearly to the surface, and in the northeastern part 
of the county, in the valley of Jack Creek, flowing wells are obtained 
(PL IV). Six flows were here reported, the one farthest upstream 
being on the farm of Leonard Gunderman, NE. \ sec. 10, T. 104 N., 
R. 40 W., and the one farthest downstream on the farm of J. B. 
Kunerth, SE. \ sec. 30, T. 104 N, R. 39 W. This is the kind of situa- 
tion in which flowing wells can be expected from the drift, the 
altitude being nearly 300 feet lower than at Wilmont, 12 miles dis- 
tant. But even here flows can be procured only near the streams 
where the surface is especially depressed, and they can not be had 
on the low land farther east. Flowing wells were reported at a few 
other points on both sides of the morainal ridge and could probably 
be obtained in a number of small areas in regions where the change 
in altitude is relatively great and abrupt. In the city wells at 
Worthington the water rises within 7 feet of the surface. 

Quality of the water. — The water from the glacial drift is all highly 
mineralized. It is all rich in calcium and magnesium, which render 
it hard, and as sulphates are high it will produce hard scale in boilers. 
There is, however, a wide range in the quality of the water. In 
general ; the hardness and total mineralization are greater (1) in the 
drift proper than in the deposits of sand and gravel at the surface, 
(2) east of the moraine than west of it, and (3) in the deep beds than 
in the shallow ones. The analyses given in the accompanying table 
(p. 290) illustrate these generalizations. No. 1 is only moderately 
hard; No. 6 is extremely hard and quite unfit for boiler use; Nos. 
2, 3, 4, and 5 are intermediate and are more nearly typical of the 
ordinary water found at moderate depths in the drift. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — From the scattered data collected from various 
sources it is safe to infer that in this county the glacial drift is gener- 
ally underlain by a series of shales and sandstones, at least the upper 



286 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



portion of which is Cretaceous in age. It is probable that there are 
in fact two distinct divisions separated by a pronounced unconformity, 
the lower one being Paleozoic and the upper one Cretaceous. The 
facts bearing on the Cretaceous are summed up in the following 
paragraphs : 

Along Big Sioux River, northward from Sioux City, Iowa, there is 
a succession of exposures which together give roughly the following 
section, the total thickness of which amounts to several hundred feet : 

4. Blue shale. 

3. Argillaceous limestone and chalk. 

2. Blue shale. 

1. Sandstone (buff to white). 

These rocks are Upper Cretaceous in age, as has been proved by 
abundant fossil evidence. No. 1 is referred to the Dakota sandstone 
and Nos. 2, 3, and 4 to the Benton group. The nearest outcrop is 
about 30 miles southwest of this county. 

In the railway well at Sanborn, Iowa, 24 miles south of the Nobles 
County line, the following section was revealed : 

Well section at Sanborn, Iowa.a 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Yellow clay 

Blue clay 

Blue shale 

Blue and green shale with streaks of lime rod. 

Soft white sandstone with some shale 

( i ray shale with streaks of rock 

Whi te sandstone 

Blue and green shale mixed with sandstone. - 
Green and white shale 



125 
160 
200 
155 
50 
45 
200 
240 



Fed. 

75 

200 

360 

560 

715 

765 

810 

1,010 

1.250 



'i Norton, W. U., Ann. Kept. Geol. Survey Iowa, vol. 6, 1S96, p. 19S. 

In the railway well at Sibley, Iowa, 8 miles south of the Nobles 
County line, the following succession of strata was found: 

Well section at Sibley, Iowa." 



Soil, yellow clay, and gravel 

Blue clay with gravel 

Sand and clay 

Blue clay with bowlders 

' Soapstoiie (shale), no gravel 

Sand (water). Penetrated 20 feet. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 
63 
60 
6 
180 
80 



Depth. 



Feet. 
63 
123 
129 
309 
389 



a Wilder. F. A., Ann. Rept, Geol. Survey Towa, vol. 10, 1899, p. 109. 

In the railway well at Ellsworth, near the southwestern corner of 
this county, the section reported is as follows: 

nCondra, G. E., Geology and water resources of a portion of the Missouri River Valley in northeastern 
Nebraska: Water-Supply Taper U. S. Geol- Survey No. 215, 190S, pp. Oetseq. 



NOBLES COUNTY. . 287 

Well section at Ellsworth." 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Feet. 

Soil, yellow clay, sand, and gravel 95 

Blue clay with gravel and bowlders : 95 

Blue soapstone (shale) , no gravel 50 

Clean water-bearing sand 30 

Sand and clay 20 

Quartzite (at depth of 281 feet). 



Feet. 
95 
190 
240 
270 
290 



a Wilder, F. A., Ann. Rept. (ieol. Survey Iowa, vol. 10, 1899, p. 109. 

In the unsuccessful well drilled for E. Cooper in the village of 
Adrian a peculiar "green clay without grit" is reported between the 
depths of 260 and 380 feet, and in a well 7 miles northwest of Adrian 
this "green clay" was drilled into for 75 feet, the hole then being 
abandoned." 

An unsuccessful well, 530 feet deep, drilled for the city of Worth- 
ington, is reported to have passed through 5 feet of coal and to have 
entered a stratum of "slate." 

A deep well west of Wilmont, on the farm of Francis A. Durfee, 
SW. \ sec. 1, T. 103 N., R. 41 W., appears to have penetrated a con- 
siderable thickness of soft blue shale and to have ended in a fine- 
grained light-colored sandstone lying between the depths of 560 and 
572 feet. 

A short distance east and northeast of Nobles County there are 
several wells that enter shale and sandstone, but to the west the 
Sioux quartzite comes to the surface. Immediately north of Nobles 
County the drift is so thick that the underlying formations are rarely 
reached in drilling, but in Lyon County, 25 miles north, a succession 
of shales and sandstones, at least in part Cretaceous, is frequently 
penetrated. 

Yield of water. — There can be little doubt that the series above dis- 
cussed contains strata of water-bearing sandstone except in the locali- 
ties where these are interrupted by the Sioux quartzite. Failure in 
deep drilling is generally due to one of two causes: Either the drilling 
is stopped in the impervious shale before any water-bearing strata are 
reached or the water-bearing strata consist of such fine and incoherent 
sand that the driller does not succeed in finishing the well. 

Head of the water. — In the central part of the county the water from 
the deep zones will remain at a depth of several hundred feet. On 
the lower ground along the eastern and western margins it will rise 
nearer the surface, but no flowing wells are to be expected. 

Quality of the water. — The water from the sandstone beds beneath 
the drift is generally extremely rich in calcium and sulphates, and 
hence is very hard and unfit for boiler use. However, soft water has 

a Authority, Scott & Day, drillers, Adrian. 



288 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

been obtained from these strata in a well at West brook, which is 13 
miles north of this county, and in many wells farther north. (See the 
reports on Lyon and Cottonwood counties.) 

SIOUX QUARTZ1TE. 

At Ellsworth, near the southwestern corner of the county, the Sioux 
quartzite or "red rock" was encountered beneath sandstone at a 
depth of 2S1 feet, and near Kinbrae and Dundee, in the northeastern 
corner, it lies immediately under the drift at depths of 100 feet and 
more, but in other parts of the county it has not been reached in 
drilling (PL III). It will yield small but permanent supplies of water, 
which is similar in quality and head to that from the overlying for- 
mations. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Worthington. — The unsuccessful deep well which was drilled for the 
city of Worthington is reported to have penetrated alternate beds of 
clay, sand, and gravel to a depth of 488 feet. Thence it passed suc- 
cessively through (1) a thin layer of "hardpan," (2) 30 feet of "black 
substance," (3) 5 feet of "coal," and (4) 5 feet of "slate," in which 
the drilling was stopped.™ 

The public supply is taken from two 12-inch wells drilled in 1906 
to a depth of 77 feet and finished with brass screens. The following 
is the section reported: 

Section of city wells at Worthington. 
[Authority, George J. Savidge, driller, Wayne, Nebr.] 



Sandy loam 

Blue clay 

Sand and large bowlders ^so.ne water). 
Blue "hardpan" 

Gravel containing limestone rocks 

Hard blue clay. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Ftet. 
10 

l.s 



Depth. 



Feet. 

in 

2s 

:.;* 
59 



The head and yield of these wells have already been given (p. 284). 
The water is hard and highly charged with iron, as is shown by analy- 
sis 5 in the table (p. 290) . There are two shallower wells winch for- 
merly furnished the public supply but are now used only for boiler 
purposes and as a reserve in case of fire. One of these wells has an 
intake from the lake. At least 1,000 people use the water to some 
extent, about 65,000 gallons being consumed daily. Approximately 
75 per cent of the inhabitants depend on private wells, most of which 
are bored or dug to depths of 15 to 40 feet and yield small amounts 
of water. The boiler supplies are derived either from shallow wells 
or from the lake. 

a Authority, M. S. Smith, former city engineer and clerk, Worthington. 



NOBLES COUNTY. 289 

Adrian. — The waterworks in Adrian village are supplied from a 
well 10 feet in diameter and 47 feet deep, which ends in sand. The 
water is only moderately hard, as is shown by the analysis in the 
table. It is used by about 700 people, and 40,000 gallons is reported 
to be consumed daily. The mill, railway, and approximately one-half 
of the homes are supplied from private wells, all of which are shallow. 

Kllsv)orth. — The public waterworks in Ellsworth village depend on 
a dug well 12 feet in diameter and 33 feet deep. The water is not 
extensively used. Most of the private wells are bored to depths of 
20 or 30 feet and end in yellow clay, yielding small supplies. 

Wilmont. — The glacial drift at Wilmont is more than 300 feet thick. 
The public waterworks, which were installed in 1907, are supplied 
from a 345-foot well, most of the data in regard to which have been 
given (pp. 284-285). The private wells are nearly all of the bored 
type, commonly ranging between 15 and 40 feet in depth and yielding 
small quantities of hard water. Analyses of water from the village 
well and from a typical shallow private well are given in the table 
(p. 290). Both samples are very hard, the former being even more 
highly mineralized than the latter. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

Over 90 per cent of the farm wells are of the bored type, from 1^ 
to 3 feet in diameter and cased with wood or tile. Some are very 
shallow and end in the surficial yellow clay or in sand and gravel 
near the surface, but the greater number pass through blue bowlder 
clay and reach stronger zones at an average depth of nearly 100 
feet. The drilled wells, most of which are in the northeastern part 
of the county, may stop in the first gravel bed penetrated or may go 
deeper for larger supplies. Near Kinbrae and Dundee a few enter 
the quartzite, or "red rock," from which they draw their water. 

Two-inch wells must be provided with screens, which become 
incrusted in a few years, but wells of larger diameter can nearly 
always be finished successfully with open ends, and are therefore 
more permanent and satisfactory. This subject is discussed under 
the heading "Problems relating to wells" (pp. 82-87). 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

At present the glacial drift furnishes virtually the entire supply 
for all purposes. If penetrated to a sufficient depth it will be found 
in nearly every locality to contain large and permanent stores of 
water. Drilling beyond a depth necessary to secure an adequate sup- 
ply can not be encouraged, because no flowing wells can be obtained 
however deep the drilling is carried, and in a large part of the county 
the water will stand several hundred feet below the surface. The 
60920°— wsp 256—11 19 



290 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



data at hand also indicate that the water from deep sources is gen- 
erally very hard and bad for boiler use, though in Lyon, Redwood, 
and Cottonwood counties soft water has been found in the sandstone 
strata below the drift. 

In the small area where quartzite or "red rock" is near the surface, 
the attempt should always be made to get water from seams of sand 
before the rock is reached. However, if it is impossible to do so, a 
small but permanent supply can be obtained from the quartzite. 

Mineral analyses of water from wells in surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.), in Nobles 

County. 

[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet . 

Diameter of well inches. 

Silica (SiOs) ■ 

Iron ( Fe) 

Aluminum ( Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides ( Fe20 3 + Al->0 3 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO<) 

Chlorine (CI ) 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Total solids 



47 

120 
31 
1.3 



5.4 
68 
3S 
57 
.0 
349 
145 
5 
.5 
529 



252 

58 
36 

395' 

350 

150 

45 

1,112 



60 
144 
33 



1,217 







93 


9 


194 


196 


71 


75 


70 


82 


401 


567 


514 


485 


45 


1.5 



1,164 



78 

12 

36 

4.6 

5.3 



179 
60 
24 

429' 

374 

3 

907' 



348 
8 
29 
3 



3.2 

435 
159 
114 

.0 
38.6 
1,583 
6 
Trace. 
2,540 



1. Village well at Adrian. July 30, 1907. 

2. Well at the residence of Doctor Williams, at Wilmont. August 1, 1907. 

3. Railway well at Bigelow. November 28, 1900. 

4. City wells at Worthington. November 27, 1900. 

5. Two city wells at Worthington. July 31 , 1907. 

6. Village well at Wilmont. August 1, 1907. 

Analyses 1, 2, 5, and 6 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Wh'ttaker, chemist 
Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 3 and 4 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago, 
St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway Company. 

OLMSTED COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 



The greater part of the surface of Olmsted County belongs to the 
plateau which extends over the entire region. In the southern half 
it stands at an elevation of about 1,300 feet above sea level, but to 
the north, where softer rocks are exposed, it subsides to an altitude 
of 1,000 to 1,200 feet. In this region the upland surface is not con- 
tinuous, the rather even crests of the ridges between the streams 
being its only representative in places. In certain localities the •gen- 
eral plateau level is broken by mounds and hills of the Galena, 
Decorah, and Platteville formations or by the sinks of the limestone 
surface. The principal valle3 7 s are those of the Zumbro, in the west- 
ern part of the county, and of the tributaries of the Root and other 
streams in the southeast and east. The valleys are only 200 to 300 
feet deep, and, though marked by steep walls or bluffs in places, do not 



OLMSTED COUNTY. 291 

commonly have the canyon-like character exhibited by the streams 
nearer the Mississippi. In the limestone areas the streams some- 
times flow in underground channels for considerable distances. 
About three-fourths of the area of Olmsted County is drained due 
north by the South Fork of the Zumbro. The erosion which has 
been effected by the Zumbro has caused a rapid encroachment of its 
tributaries from the south upon the basins of streams draining the 
region covered by Olmsted and Dodge counties, thus affording a 
clear example of stream piracy. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The surface deposits include alluvium, loess, and glacial drift. 

The alluvium consists of irregularly stratified gravels and sands 
deposited along the valleys of the present streams, especially Zumbro 
and Root rivers. Its thickness varies, but probably rarely exceeds 
50 feet, though locally it may be considerably greater. It contains 
moderate amounts of water and affords supplies to shallow wells 
sufficient for domestic and farm purposes. The narrow shelves or 
terraces which occur in some localities along the borders of the 
valleys contain little water at depths above the level of the adjacent 
streams. 

The loess deposits are too thin to be important as sources of sup- 
ply, but they serve to collect the rain falling on the upland surfaces 
and to feed it to the underlying rock formations. 

The glacial drift in Olmsted County is a heterogeneous mass of 
clay, pebbles, and bowlders. There seem to be two sheets, separated 
locally by beds of peat. Near the southwestern corner of the county 
the drift is 75 to 100 feet thick, but it becomes thinner eastward 
until in the eastern part of the county it is present only in scattered 
patches. In the southwestern area the drift includes a number of 
sandy or gravelly layers capable of holding considerable amounts 
of water, which is yielded to farm and domestic wells throughout 
the uplands. Where the drift is in patches it is rarely of importance 
as a source of water. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Maquoketa shale, as represented in this county, consists of 
about 15 feet of argillaceous shale, sandy shale, and impure lime- 
stone. It is present only in a small area in the southwestern, part 
of the county, where it yields small supplies to domestic and farm 
wells of moderate depth. 

The Galena limestone, Decorah shale, and Platteville limestone 
have an aggregate thickness of about 200 feet. They are found 
beneath the higher uplands, where the limestones locally yield water 
supplies of moderate volume. The Decorah shale is not water 



292 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

bearing but serves to collect the water from the overlying limestones, 
bringing it to the surface as springs, which are locally important for 
farm purposes. 

The St. Peter sandstone is about 110 feet thick and outcrops along 
the Root" River valley in the southeastern part of the county and 
along the Zumbro River valley and its tributaries in the northern 
and northwestern parts of the county. Generally it has a flat grass 
or timber-covered surface, which is locally broken by mounds of 
sandstone preserved by a hard cap of the overlying Platteville lime- 
stone. It dips southwestward and underlies the greater portion 
of the county. It usually affords abundant water for domestic and 
farm purposes and even for small industrial and public supplies. 

The Shakopee dolomite, which is about 35 feet thick, outcrops in 
the cliffs along the principal rivers and underlies extensive areas of 
uplands near the northern border of the county. It affords a very 
compact widespread base for the overlying St. Peter, but yields 
water enough only for the most restricted requirements. Many 
springs emerge from the top of this formation where it outcrops. 

The New Richmond sandstone is exposed in the upper portion of 
the Zumbro and Root River valleys. It underlies a large part of the 
Shakopee area in the northern part of the county and will furnish 
supplementary supplies of importance to wells of moderate depth. 

The Oneota dolomite occurs beneath the alluvium in the bottom 
of the Zumbro Valley and its tributaries in the northern part of the 
county and in the Root River valley near the county line on the 
south. It also underlies the uplands throughout the county and is 
about 200 feet or less in thickness. It contains very little water 
but gives rise to springs along the valleys mentioned. 

The Jordan sandstone is about 120 feet thick. The formation 
underlies the entire county and is generally saturated with water, 
yielding good supplies to deep wells, though on the uplands the water 
must be lifted several hundred feet by pumps. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of 200 feet or more of calca- 
reous shales and sandstones. It carries some water, but the amount 
is less than in the overlying Jordan or in the underlying Dresbach. 

The Dresbach sandstone, which is here about 50 feet thick, underlies 
the St. Lawrence and is a strong water-bearing bed, but not stronger 
than the Jordan, 250 feet above it. Where large volumes are needed, 
however, for industrial or public purposes, the Dresbach sandstone 
will furnish supplementary supplies that will doubtless prove 
important. 

Below the Dresbach sandstone are about 150 feet of grayish or 
greenish shales, and below these is more than 200 feet of porous 
sandstone containing abundant water. As is true of the Dresbach, 
however, owing to the abundance of water in the overlying Jordan, 



OLMSTED COUNTY. 293 

there is no advantage in sinking wells to this lower sandstone except 
for supplementary supplies. 

The red clastic series, consisting of red shale, sandstone, and 
quartzite, underlies the sandstone just described and is in turn 
underlain by the granite. Neither of these, however, affords water 
supplies and neither has been reached by borings in this county. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — Formerly wells 10 to 35 feet deep were common through- 
out the county, but the supplies were found deficient in dry seasons 
and the water more or less liable to pollution. For these reasons 
drilled wells entering the rock have been largely substituted, though 
many shallow wells are still in use. Most of the drilled wells pene- 
trate the rock only a short distance, but at Rochester a well has 
been sunk to the Dresbach sandstone, this being the only well of 
notable depth in the county. 

Head of the water. — The head of water, relative to the surface, 
varies considerably, owing to the topographic irregularities. In the 
northern portion of the county there are a few flowing wells. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Rochester. — The public supply of Rochester is obtained from a 
series of wells sunk into the alluvium near the mouth of Bear Creek. 
These wells derive their head from the alluvium of the creek valley 
south of the city. The water is used by about one-half of the people. 

Several years ago a deep well was drilled at the State Hospital 
for the Insane near Rochester. As the hospital grounds are con- 
siderably above the city, the drilling was begun in Galena or Platte- 
ville limestone. The section is interesting because it represents 
nearly the entire Paleozoic development of southeastern Minnesota: 

Well section at Rochester. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Soil, loess, drift, and broken limestone 

St. Peter sandstone 

Shakopee dolomite, New Richmond sandstone, and Oneota dolomite. 

Jordan sandstone 

Limestone and sandstone (St. Lawrence and Dresbach?) 

Shale 

Sandstone 



Feet. 

75 

100 

150 

175 

300 

80 

80 



Feet. 
75 
175 
325 
500 
800 
880 
960 



Stewartville. — A well 63 feet deep has furnished the public supply 
at Stewartville up to the present, but a new well was being drilled in 
1908. About 8,000 gallons of water is consumed daily. 

Eyota. — A compressed air system of waterworks has recently been 
installed by the village of Eyota. The supply comes from a well 
10 inches in diameter and 203 feet deep. 



294 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The sandstones that underlie this county yield ample and perma- 
nent supplies. Usually an adequate amount of water can be ol>t ained 
from the St. Peter at a moderato depth, but where it can not there 
need be no hesitation in drilling to the Jordan, which lies about 200 
feet deeper and has proved an excellent water-bearing formation 
wherever it has been encountered. No Hows can be obtained on the 
uplands, to what over depth drilling may be carried. 

Mineral analyses of water in Olmsted County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Dresbaoh 

sand- 
stone. 



Depth feet 

Silica (SiOs) 

Calcium (Cal 

Magnesium ( Mg) 

Sodium and potassium ( Na+ K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOs) 

Sulphate radicle (SO«) 

Chlorine (CD 

Total solids 



Alluvium and gla- 
cial drift. 


St. Peter 

sand- 
stone. 


.Ionian 
sand- 
stone. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


32 


32 


140 


150 


13 


14 


12 


9. 8 


80 


77 


65 


73 


22 


15 


17 


31 


11 


7.0 


2. 6 


15 


352 


300 


279 


368 


ll 


15 


2. 7 


• >•> 


9. 6 


4.7 


4 


11 


320 


290 


241 


343 



13 
79 
is 
5.9 
288 
(> 
5 
290 



1 . City wells at Rochester. July, 1S90. 

2. City wells at. Rochester. October, 1900. 

3. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Ryota. May, 1S89. 

4. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Rochester. 'May, 1S89. 

5. Rochester well at the Hospital for the Insane at Rochester*. October, 1900. 

Analyses 1, 2, 3, and 4 were furnished by (5. M. Davidson, chemist, Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
Company. Analysis 5 was made for the United States ecological Survey by ll. s. Spaulding. 

PIPESTONE COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

Most of Pipestone County consists of a gently undulating prairie, 
but near the northeastern corner it is crossed by an irregular morainal 
ridge that rises above the surrounding plain and reaches an altitude 
of more than 1,900 feet above sea level. This ridge forms the 
boundary between the swampy, lake-covered region to the northeast 
and the better-drained area virtually free of lakes or swamps to the 
southwest. It also forms the divide between the Mississippi and 
Missouri basins, giving rise to Redwood and Des Moines rivers on its 
northeastern flank and to Flandreau Creek and Rock River on its 
southwestern. Rock River flows southward through a rather wide 
valley near the eastern margin of the county, and just before it leaves 
this county it is joined by Chanarambie Creek coming from the east. 
Flandreau, Pipestone, and Split Rock creeks drain the western half 
of the county, all flowing southwestward. 



PIPESTONE COUNTY. 295 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The upland surface is in general covered with the 
bowlder clay and sandy deposits of the glacial drift, but in the valley 
of Rock River and in some of the smaller valleys are found extensive 
alluvial deposits, for the most part also of glacial origin. The drift 
varies greatly in thickness. On the morainal ridge in the north- 
eastern corner it is several hundred feet deep and the underlying 
formations have seldom if ever been reached in drilling, but in many 
localities in the central, southern, and western parts it is absent or 
very thin. A line drawn diagonally from the northwestern to the 
southeastern corner will roughly form the boundary between the 
deep and the shallow drift. Plate II shows the thickness of the 
drift in as much detail as possible. 

Yield of water. — In the northeastern part of the county and in 
other localities in which the drift is deep, it will usually supply plenty 
of water for all purposes, but where its depth is not great the yield is 
frequently inadequate. In the areas where it is thinnest the drift 
furnishes only a small percentage of the water consumed, but the 
proportion increases with the thickness and is virtually 100 per cent 
where the drift is as much as 300 feet thick. The drift is so chaotic 
in its structure that chance must determine whether, in a given 
locality, with a given thickness of drift, a satisfactory supply can be 
procured without drilling into rock, but the chances increase with 
the thickness in a geometric progression. 

Head of the water. — The only flowing wells reported in this county 
are one 19 feet deep, just north of Edgerton, and one 45 feet deep, 
situated southwest of Pipestone on the farm of Anna M. Kothe, NW. 
\ sec- 22, T. 106 N., R. 46 W. The level to which the water rises 
varies considerably and is farthest below the surface in the deepest 
wells on the morainal ridge. Where the quartzite projects above the 
general level of a region the head of water in the surrounding drift is 
higher than elsewhere, and many springs occur. 

Quality of the water. — All the water from the surface deposits is 
more or less highly mineralized, the drift water generally being harder 
and richer in dissolved minerals than the water from the alluvium. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Throughout most of southwestern Minnesota a series of shales and 
sandstones of Cretaceous age lies below the drift, and it is not improb- 
able that this series extends into the northern and eastern parts of 
Pipestone County, but it has probably never been reached in drilling. 

SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

Description. — Beneath the less indurated deposits lies the Sioux 
quartzite, or "red rock," which is referred to the Algonkian system. 



296 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Although on the whole this rock is remarkably uniform in color, 
hardness, and composition, consisting essentially of a thoroughly 
indurated red quartzite of great thickness, yet it is not entirely 
uniform. Its color ranges through various shades of red, from light 
pink to dark purple. The hardness also varies greatly, and in a few 
places strata of incoherent sand are encountered. Neither is the 
composition altogether uniform, for interbedded with the quartzite 
there are occasional thin layers of pipestone, of which one outcrops 
in the famous Indian quarry near the city of Pipestone and others are 
reported by drillers. The rock is plainly stratified and commonly 
cross-bedded and ripple marked, has a gentle but varying dip, and is 
broken up by a system of joints. 

The quartzite surface consists for the most part of relatively level 
plateaus cut by canyons and abruptly terminated by escarpments. 
The following is a representative list of wells which enter the quartz- 
ite, together with the depth to the rock and the distance it was 
penetrated : 

Table of typical wells in the Sioux quartzite of Pipestone County. 
[Given on the authority of drillers and other persons.] 



Owner and location. 



Depth 
to rock. 



Distance 
drilled 
in rock. 



Total 

depth of 

well. 



C M. Flagg, NW. $ sec. 3G, T. 107 N., R. 40 W 

W. L. Tallman, SE. } sec. 25, T. 107 N., R. 40 W. . 
M. Ackerman, NE. J sec. IS, T. 107 N., R. 45 W... 
J. R. Atwood, NW. i sec. 17, T. 107 N., R. 45 W— 
J. Iluemoeller, NW. i sec. 32, T. 107 N., R. 45 W. . 

A. Johnson, SW. Jsec.31, T. 107N., R. 45 W 

W. F. Boock, SW. i sec. 27, T. 106 N., R. 46 W . . . 

J. R. Hubbard, S. J sec. 8, T. 106 N., R. 46 W 

J. Johannsen, SE. J see. 32, T. 106 N., R. 46 W 

W. S. McDonald, NE. J sec. 22, T. 106 N., R. 46 W 

I. B. Smith, SE. i sec. 29, T. 106 N., R. 46 W 

P. V. Whitehead, SE. } sec. 18, T. 106 N., R. 46 W 

Pipestone city well, No. 1 

Pipestone city well, No. 2 

R. O.Curl, NW. isec. 19, T. 106 N., R. 45 W 

A. McQuaid, NE. i sec. 6, T. 106 N.,R. 45 W 

F. Buck, NE. i sec. 7, T. 105 N., R. 46 W 

L. Erickson, SE. { sec. 22, T. 105 N., R. 46 W 

S. Grummer, SW. J sec. 19, T. 105 N., R. 46 W 

H. F. Hanson, NW. \ sec. 30, T. 105 N., R. 46 W. . 
H. O. Hogsted, SE. \ sec. 34, T. 105 N., R. 46 W... 
A. Mitchell, SW.J sec. 27, T. 105 N., R. 46 W 

G. Nelson, NW. \ see. 34, T. 105 N., R. 46 W 

Taylor & Burg, SW. \ sec. 18, T. 105 N., R. 46 W .. 
J. W. Wehrman, N. 4 sec. 29, T. 105 N., R. 46 W... 
L. W. Alexander, NW. { sec. 5, T. 105 N., R. 45 W 
J. O. Alexander, SW. \ sec. 5, T. 105 N., R. 45 W.. 

Myers & Miller, E. isec. 4, T. 105 N., R. 45 W 

J. D. Quinn, NW. f sec. 6, T. 105 N., R. 45 W 



Feet. 
30 

60 
140 
100 
SO 
30 
50 
300 
42 
102 
22 



SO 
30 
70 
10 
SI 
35 
17 
4 
20 
97 
70 

100(?) 
80(?) 
37 
60 



Feet. 
270 
110 

80 

70 

90 
130 

72 



258 

27 

96 

6 

173 

323 

SO 
140 

50 
200 

44 


S5 
146 
210 

38 

31 
100(?) 

70(?) 
500 
100 



Feet. 
300 
170 
220 
170 
170 
160 
122 
300 
300 
129 
118 

86 
200 
350 
160 
170 
120 
210 
125 

35 
102 
150 
230 
135 
101 
200 
150 
537 
160 



Yield of water. — Formerly the quartzite was not considered a 
water-bearing formation, but the great dearth of water in some locali- 
ties forced the experiment of deep drilling into it. Almost everywhere 
it was found to yield some water, and it is now depended on as a reliable 
source of supply. The body of the quartzite is massive and firmly 



PIPESTONE COUNTY. 29*7 

cemented; but the water percolates through the joints or "crevices" 
by which the rock is broken and also through certain portions in which 
the pore space is not entirely filled by cementation. Below the 
ground-water level all open spaces are saturated and will contribute 
some water to a well brought into communication with them. 
Although the amount furnished by any single "crevice" or pervious 
layer is usually small the effect is cumulative, and as drilling is con- 
tinued the well becomes connected with more and more of these 
water-bearing elements. The depth to which it is necessary to sink 
in order to get an adequate supply is to a large extent determined by 
chance, depending on the course of the well in passing through com- 
pact and unbroken rock or in encountering many "crevices" or 
pervious beds. 

Nevertheless, the yield of rock wells is usually very small as 
compared with that of wells in more porous formations. It is cus- 
tomary for drillers to guarantee only 100 gallons an hour in farm 
wells, though the actual yield is often much greater. In nearly all 
wells the supply is found to be permanent and sure. The two city 
wells at Pipestone, which are 6 and 8 inches in diameter and 200 and 
350 feet deep, together deliver 140 gallons a minute for an indefinite 
period when an air-tight lift is employed. It seems that tolerably 
large yields can nearly always be procured if the wells are sunk to a 
sufficient depth. 

Head of the water. — The level at which the water stands in the 
wells depends largely on the topography. It is generally less than 100 
feet but commonly more than 50 feet below the surface. 

Quality of the water. — The quartzite itself contributes very little 
mineral matter to the water, and hence where the rain enters it 
directly the water remains soft. But in most localities the rock is 
covered by a layer of drift through which the water must first perco- 
late, thereby being rendered more or less highly mineralized. The 
analyses given in the accompanying table (p. 300) are representative 
of the quartzite waters of this county. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOE, CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Pipestone. — The Sioux quartzite is at or near the surface in the 
eastern part of the city of Pipestone and at no great depth in the 
western part. To the north it forms a low west-facing ledge, over 
which Pipestone Creek leaps in a small cataract. 

The public supply is derived from two wells in the center of the 
city, about 20 feet apart. One of these is 200 and the other 350 
feet deep. The upper 27 feet consist of clay, below which there is 
quartzite, the casing extend ng only to the rock. The water rises to 
a level 96 feet below the surface or 1,630 feet above the sea. By 



298 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

means of an air lift the wells have been made to yield 127 gallons a 
minute for ten hours continuously, and this is reported to have 
lowered the water level about 10 feet. More recently they have 
been tested at 140 gallons. The water is remarkably clear and, as 
the analyses show, is only moderately hard. It is used by about 
2,300 people, or perhaps 90 per cent of the total population, the 
average daily consumption amounting to approximately 60,000 gal- 
lons. In most of the city the quartzite is so near the surface that 
no water can be obtained except by expensive drilling, but in the 
western part, where the distance to rock is greater, there are some 
shallow bo.red wells. 

Jasper. — The Sioux quartzite, which outcrops in the eastern part 
of the village of Jasper as a west-facing ledge, gives rise to springs, 
one of which near the center of the settlement furnishes the public 
supply. This spring yields somewhat more than 50 gallons a minute 
and is reported not to be greatly affected by drought. Its water is 
relatively soft, as is shown by the analysis given in the table (p. 300), 
and is used by about 200 people, an average of 10,000 gallons being 
consumed daily. Perhaps two-thirds of the inhabitants depend on 
private wells. In the western part of the village most of these end 
in deposits of sand and clay at very shallow depths, the ground- 
water table being at or near the surface; but in the eastern part 
there are several rock wells. 

Edgerton. — The village of Edgerton is located between Rock River 
and Chanarambie Creek, on a wide low terrace built of alluvial sand, 
gravel, and clay, with which the valley is partly filled. The public 
supply is taken from a well 16 feet in diameter, sunk to a depth of 24 
feet in the alluvial deposits. The level at which the water stands 
in this well varies somewhat with the season. In August, 1907, it 
stood about 13 feet below the surface; at that time pumping at the 
rate of 265 gallons a minute for two hours continuously would lower 
the water to 2 1 feet below the surface, and the same rate of pumping 
continued for four hours would empty the well. In dry years the 
ground-water table is lower and the yield is probably much less. 
The water is only moderately hard, as is shown by the analysis given 
in the table (p. 300). The private wells, which supply water for 
approximately 75 per cent of the people, are dug or bored to a depth 
of about 15 or 20 feet and end in alluvium. In a part of the village 
sand and gravel beds are absent and consequently there are no wells. 
No deep drilling has been done, but there are several abandoned holes 
between 100 and 200 feet in depth. 

Ruthton. — The village of Ruthton is situated near the headwaters 
of Redwood River, where the altitude is relatively high and the 
glacial drift is deep. The following is the approximate section of 
the 6-inch well that supplies the public waterworks : 



PIPESTONE COUNTY. 299 

Well section at Ruthton. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Yellow clay 

Blue clay 

Sand and gravel. 

Blue clay 

Sand 



Feet. 
25 
70 
10 
139 
16 



Feet. 
25 
95 
105 
244. 
260 



In this well the water rises to a level about 60 feet below the surface 
or 1,680 feet above the sea. After it was drilled (in 1905) it was 
finished with a 16-foot screen and was then pumped at the rate of 
35 gallons a minute for ten hours continuously without noticeable 
effect. The water, which is hard, is utilized very little at present 
except for fire protection. All the people use water from private 
wells, most of which are sunk to depths of only 20 or 30 feet and 
afford small supplies. The creamery and mill are provided with 
drilled wells about 105 feet deep and there are several other wells of 
this type. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

The farm supplies are drawn from two distinct sources, the deposits 
of drift and alluvium and the quartzite or "red rock." The wells 
which terminate in the drift and alluvium are drilled, bored, dug, 
or driven; those which penetrate the quartzite are of course all of 
the drilled type and are generally 6 inches in diameter. In the 
region including Pipestone, Jasper, and Trosky, which was described 
above as the area of shallow drift, a large proportion of the farms are 
supplied from rock wells ranging from about 60 to 300 feet in depth. 
Formerly almost the only source of water consisted of the shallow 
wells that ended in the drift above the quartzite, but these proved 
so unreliable that they have to a great extent been abandoned for 
rock wells. Drilling in quartzite at first presented serious difficul- 
ties, but those who have made a specialty of this kind of work have 
overcome these difficulties to such a degree that failures are now 
very rare. No one need hesitate to have a well sunk into the rock 
if he can afford the cost,, but it is important to employ an experi- 
enced rock driller, as otherwise there is liable to be trouble. Prob- 
lems involved in drilling in quartzite are discussed under the heading 
"Problems relating to wells" (pp. 87-88). 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Pipestone County is divisible into two distinct ground-water 
provinces — (1) the area of thin drift in which the rock is near the 
surface and (2) the area of thick drift where the rock is deeply 
buried. The portions of the county included in each are shown on 



300 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Plates II and III. Jasper, Trosky, Ihlen, Pipestone, and Altona lie 
in the first area; Ruthton, Holland, Woodstock, and Edgerton are 
in the second. In the former it is often necessary to drill into rock, 
which, if penetrated to a depth of several hundred feet, will usually 
afford enough water not only for farm purposes, but also for ordinary 
industrial and public supplies. In the second area large and per- 
manent stores of water are usually contained in the sand and gravel 
seams of the drift and in the alluvial deposits of the Rock River 
valley. The composition varies, but the water from the quartzite, 
as well as that from the alluvium, is on an average softer than the 
glacial drift water. In neither area are flowing wells to be expected. 

Mineral analyses of 'water in Pipestone. County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Surface deposits 

(glacial drift, 

etc.). 



Sioux quartzite. 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches. . 

Silica (SiO-j) 

Iron (Fe) 

Aluminum ( Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe^Os+AliOs) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mgl 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CD 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Total solids 



24 
192 



.0 



210 


19 
2.5 
10 



230 (?) 



f 200 
i 350 
6 and S 

17 

.12 
3.2 



307 
6 



4 
124 

21 
15 

346* 
67 

35 

35 

504 



444 
23 



4.2 
4S 
19 
16 
.0 
261 
16 
11 
3.6 
269 



160 
68 
33 

620* 

41 



351 
89 
31 



442 



28 
3S 

3ir' 

59 

36 

4 

425 



1.2 
104 
49 
110 



372 

368 



1. Village well at Edgerton. August 1, 1907. 

2. Railway well at Hatfield. October 15, 1888. 

3. Spring which furnishes the public supply at Jasper. August 6, 1907. 

4. Well near Jasper, on the farm of L. Erickson, SE. J sec. 22, T. 105 N., R. 46 W. August 6, 1907. 

5. "City well" at Pipestone. June 24, 1SS9. 

6. Mixture of water from the two city wells at Pipestone. August 2, 1907. 

7. AVell at Pipestone. October 25, 1901. 

Analyses 1, 3, 4, and 6 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. "Whit taker, chemist, 
Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 2 and 5 were furnished by G. N." Prentiss, chemist, Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. Analysis 7 was furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist. 
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway Company. 

RAMSEY COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

The southern two-thirds of the surface of Ramsey County is covered 
with rough moraines, among which lie many lakes. In the northern 
third the surface is flat or undulating, but poorly drained, broad 
swampy tracts and numerous lakes occupying the shallow depressions. 
There is little variation in the altitude of the upland surface. The 
highest points are in the morainal hills along the eastern border and at 
points in the southwestern part of the county, the altitudes here being 



EAMSEY COUNTY. 301 

somewhat more than 1 ,000 feet above sea level. The Mississippi flows 
in a deep channel, the width varying from a few hundred yards above 
Fort Snelling to a mile or more below that point and to several miles 
below St. Paul. The river is bordered by a terrace cut into the rock 
at a height of 100 feet or more above the water. This terrace is 
nearly continuous across the south edge of the county, but varies in 
width from a mile or more near the mouth of the Minnesota and near 
St. Paul to about one-eighth of a mile at the southeastern corner of 
the county. The tributary streams are numerous, but generally 
meander over the undulating surface in indefinite valleys, except 
near the Mississippi, where they have cut somewhat deeper channels. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Alluvium occurs chiefly along the Mississippi Valley below St. Paul, 
but some of it borders the river as far as the mouth of the Minnesota, 
and small amounts occur along the smaller streams. Its greatest 
thickness is not known, but is probably 50 to 100 feet or more. It is 
saturated with water and will afford moderate supplies, but not 
enough for industrial purposes. 

Terrace gravels occur along the Mississippi at various levels, but 
are most prominent on the 100-foot terrace described above. Near 
the river the water has generally been drained from them, but back 
from the stream considerable supplies may be obtained. 

The glacial drift varies from indistinctly laminated clay to a hetero- 
geneous mixture of clay, sand, and gravel. Beneath the clay, incor- 
porated between successive beds of it, or spread over the surface, are 
many thick layers of sand and gravel. The clay generally has a red- 
dish tinge, due to material brought in by the Lake Superior lobe of 
the last glacial invasion. The total thickness of the drift is consid- 
erable, in many localities being more than 100 feet. The sandy parts 
and interbedded gravel beds are saturated with water, which is given 
up freely to wells penetrating them. 

One of the features of special geologic interest, as well as of impor- 
tance with regard to underground water, is the buried preglacial 
stream valley entering St. Paul from the northeast and joining the 
Mississippi. To the north it has been penetrated at Lake Vadnais, 
where a well was sunk 230 feet before striking rock, though the rock 
on either side occurs at only about half this depth. Similar relations 
exist in St. Paul, well records on either side showing the surface rock 
to be Galena limestone, whereas within the channel the first rock 
penetrated is the Shakopee dolomite or the Oneota dolomite, which 
is stratigraphically about 200 feet lower. The well of the St. Paul 
Harvester Works, near Phalen Creek, a short distance south of the 
outlet of Lake Phalen, found 235 feet of drift in the channel, this 
depth of drift being about 150 feet greater than the average at either 



302 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

side. The channel bottom is at least 100 feet below the present level 
of the Mississippi and represents the bed of an old stream entering the 
Mississippi when the latter flowed at a much lower level than at 
present. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Galena, Decorah, and Platte ville formations are here represented 
by a blue limy shale, with alternating thin limestone layers, having a 
maximum thickness, according to the record of the well at the reform 
school, of at least 132 feet. The beds are seen in the south bluffs of 
the Mississippi, between Mendota and St. Paul, and they underlie the 
high residence district known as St. Anthony Hill. The lower beds 
are calcareous and partly crystalline and are economically important 
as a source of building stone. The jointed condition gives rise, along 
the transition bed, to springs which otherwise would issue much 
higher. The beds, as a whole, however, are not to be regarded as a 
source of water supply. 

The St. Peter sandstone is about 150 feet thick, and about 40 feet 
above the bottom has a shale parting. It outcrops along the bluffs 
of the Mississippi and underlies the formations previously described 
throughout the county. Near the northeastern and northwestern 
corners it probably lies immediately below the glacial drift. It con- 
tains abundant supplies of water. Even near the river water is 
obtained, often under considerable pressure, from the bed beneath 
the shale parting, this portion not being drained, because it lies below 
the river level, except in the southern part of the county. In the 
city of St. Paul, however, where the wells are close together, they 
interfere, to a certain extent, with one another, and the supplies are 
correspondingly reduced. 

The Shakopee dolomite lies deep below the general surface of the 
county and forms the rock walls at the bottom of the Mississippi 
gorge from the neighborhood of the St. Paul levee to the south limit 
of the county. It carries relatively little water and is not to be 
regarded as a source of supply. 

The New Richmond sandstone is only a few feet thick and is not 
continuous. Where present it contains a moderate supply of water, 
though much less than the thicker sandstones. 

The Oneota dolomite has a considerable thickness, but, like the 
Shakopee, it carries relatively small amounts of water. 

The Jordan sandstone is between 70 and 125 feet in thickness. 
Although merging into shale at the base, it is an excellent water- 
bearing formation and yields large supplies to a considerable num- 
ber of wells in St. Paul and the vicinity. Where wells are crowded 
together, however, as they are in this county, the supply is con- 
siderably depleted and the head of the water noticeably lowered. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of blue limestone, alternating 
with blue or green shales and a few sandstone layers, and has a total 



EAMSEY COUNTY. 303 

thickness of 150 to 200 feet. Some water is present, especially in its 
sandy layers, but the amounts are small in comparison with those 
yielded by sandstones above and below. 

The Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales aggregate several 
hundred feet in thickness. The sandstone carries rather large 
amounts of water and is the source of supply in a number of deep 
wells. In general, the amounts to be obtained are no larger than in 
the Jordan, but where the Jordan has been depleted by the multi- 
plication of wells the Dresbach constitutes an important supple- 
mentary source. 

The red clastic, series of shale and sandstone comprises the lowest 
rocks entered in Ramsey County. It has considerable thickness, but 
the amount of water which it yields is too small to be of economic 
value. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Head of the water. — The northern part of Ramsey County abounds 
in lakes, which lie between 880 and 930 feet above sea level and mark 
the surficial ground-water table of the drift deposits. The deeper 
wells show a lower head than those ending in the glacial drift. Nev- 
ertheless, in the lower part of the city of St. Paul and along the 
entire stretch of the valley of the Mississippi bordering this county, 
the surface is so much below the upland level that flowing wells are 
obtained. Within the city of St. Paul the boundary of the flowing 
area extends into the business district as far as Seventh street, 
between Minnesota street and the border of Daytons Bluff, and 
corresponds roughly to the 740-foot contour. The head was at one 
time higher than this and is probably steadily falling, so that the 
statement of altitude is merely an approximation. In the northern 
part of the county the water from deep sources will rise somewhat 
higher above sea level than in the valley of the Mississippi, and 
though it will not come to the surface the pressure is everywhere 
adequate to bring it to a height sufficient for economic uses. 

Quality of the water. — In Plate XIY will be found a large number of 
analyses of waters from all the principal zones. It will be noted that 
the waters from the glacial drift and from the St. Peter, Jordan, and 
Dresbach sandstones do not differ greatly from one another. Each 
group is moderately mineralized, the principal dissolved constitu- 
ents being the calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonates, which produce 
a father soft scale in boilers, but render the water hard. These con- 
stituents can be removed in large part by heating, so that the water 
is left softer and better for boiler use. An important fact developed 
by the assembling of the analyses is that the water beneath St. Paul 
is somewhat softer than that from the same formations beneath 
Minneapolis. (Compare Pis. X and XIV.) 



304 UNDEEGEOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 

ST. PAUL PUBLIC SUPPLY. 

The public supply for the city of St. Paul is obtained from several 
sources. Most of it is derived from glacial lakes north of the city, 
but a part comes from wells at Lake Vadnais and Centerville Lake. 

At Lake Vadnais there are 12 wells. The following is the log of 
one of the deepest, which is 10 inches in diameter and was sunk in 
1904: 

Section of deep well at Lake Vadnais. 
[Authority, Twenty-third Rept. Board of Water Commissioners, St. Paul, 1905.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Feet. 
20 
230 
297 
324 
351 
434 
620 
059 



Clay and sand 

Sand 

Limestone 

Hard sandstone 

Hard limestone 

Fine white sandstone 

Very fine white sandstone. 
Coarse white sandstone . . . 



Feet. 
20 
210 
67 
27 
27 
83 
186 



When this station was first installed it had a capacity of 5,000,000 
gallons, the wells all being connected and working together, but a 
test made in 1904 showed the total capacity at that time to be only 
3,516,000 gallons, a decrease of about 63 per cent for the deep wells 
and of about 37 per cent for the shallow wells. 

The Centerville group consists of 10 deep wells 12 inches in diam- 
eter and 302 to 523 feet in depth, all of which enter the Jordan 
sandstone, and 18 shallow wells 8 inches in diameter and 51 to 
76 feet, averaging 62J feet deep. In the report on Anoka County 
the section of one of the deep wells is given (p. 130.) 

In 1907 the average daily consumption of public water was 
10,781,044 gallons. 

SUMMAEY. 

The four principal water zones are (1) the glacial drift, (2) the St. 
Peter sandstone, (3) the Jordan sandstone, and (4) the Dresbach 
and basal Cambrian sandstones. Their stratigraphic position and 
depth beneath the surface, as well as the mineral character oi the 
water from each, are shown in Plate XIV. The water from the 
deeper sandstones is under sufficient pressure to rise considerably 
above the level of Mississippi River. 

REDWOOD COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SUEFACE FEATUEES. 

Most of Redwood County consists of a flat plain that rises imper- 
ceptibly southwestward. This plain is intermediate in altitude 



Silica (SiOj) 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe,( 

Calcium (Ca) 

sium (Mg) 

n and potassium (Na-t-K) 
Bicarbonate radicle (HCO,) 
Sulphate radicle (SOJ 
Chlorine (CI) 
Total solids 



PUBLIC SUPPLY 



GLACIAL DRIFT 



269. 

11.2 
5.1 



NEW RICHMOND 



DRESBACH, ETC 



St. Peter sandstone 

Shakopee dolomite 

New Richmond sandstone 

Oneota dolomite" 

Jordan sandstone, 

St. Lawrence formation 

Dresbach sandstone 

Shales and sandstones 

Red clastic series 



City datum 694,7 



ESI 



m 



940 945 
660- 'pi E3! i?° «B 



. Public supply taken at City a 



1 County Hospital. June, 1900. Dearborn labo- 

1901, by G. M. l)aviil.-(»ti,rli t -m^t, I'hica^o, St. 



- Bear March, 1890 Dearboi 




ANALYSES OF ST. PAUL WATERS ARRANGED 



AVERAGED ACCORDING TO ROCK FORMATIONS. 



Lutheran Seminary well. December, 1895. Dearborn Inbm 
Minnesota Hiirvivti-r Company well. 



22. St. Paul Furnitui 



■ell. April, 19(11). Dearborn l:il. i-rut-.. 



/ Furniture ( |miiv v.vil Seplcnil-.r . IWHi. Dearborn laboratory. 

. I';iul l-'ouieln- C 1 .i.i|.iiiiv w<:\\. .Inn'.-, 1M*. Pear-bon, laboratory, 
aienvorks well ;-.( North SI Paul. October, 1893. 



Portland Apartments well. June, 1896. Dearborn laboratory. 

Vin-.mme brother-; well. I i.-.i'inl-. r, ]«"'>. i>earb..Ni laboratory. 

i Ap'irhiK'iit- well. I'Vl.ruiirv, l.-'»;. Iv.u-i. blu.iM 

icklniT Ciriiranv well Uav,' l'JOii. Dearborn laboraU 



M.Mil 



.illewell. 



, 1M17. 



Et 



Dea 



ohner,au:ilv.-t. 
lanl of Health. 

tb orator) . 



. ^v. ill iV; I ■-. w.-ll .il I--- 



February, 1905. Minnesota 

d'st. Paul Railway well. November, 1891. 

well. October, 1899 Dearborn laboratory, 

Railway well, 
ill, Si Paul 



REDWOOD COUNTY. 305 

between the valley of Minnesota River on the northeast and the 
Coteau des Prairies on the southwest. With reference to the valley, 
which is 150 to 200 feet deep, it constitutes a plateau, but in relation 
to the coteau, which lies 500 feet higher, it is a lowland tract. The 
ascent to the coteau begins m the southwestern extremity of the 
county, where the upward grade is greatly augmented. 

Redwood and Cottonwood rivers flow eastward across the county, 
occupying rather shallow valleys until as they approach the Minne- 
sota, into which they discharge, they descend into deep and pictur- 
esque gorges. This is especially true of Redwood River, which cas- 
cades over a granite ledge at Redwood Falls. Until the principal 
streams have cut their valleys down to accord with the Minnesota 
most of the county will have insufficient relief for an adequate drain- 
age. Near the southwestern corner, however, where the descent 
from the coteau is relatively steep, many ravines have been cut, 
some of which extend down to the ground-water level and have per- 
manent streams fed by springs. This is why nearly all the affluents 
of Cottonwood River come from the south. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The surface deposits consist of glacial drift and re- 
cent alluvium. The drift occurs everywhere except in small areas 
in the Minnesota Valley, in the valley of Redwood River below the 
falls, and in some of the western townships where older formations 
are exposed. Over most of the eastern, central, and southwestern 
parts of the county it is between 100 and 200 feet thick and locally 
it reaches a still greater thickness. In the northwestern part it is 
generally thinner, being less than 50 feet thick throughout a large 
portion of the following six townships: Vail (T. Ill N., R. 37 W.), 
Granite Rock (T. Ill N., R. 38 W.), Westline (T. Ill N., R. 39 W.), 
Sheridan (T. 112 X., R. 37 W.), Vesta (T. 112 N., R. 38 W.), and 
Underwood (T. 112 N., R. 39 W.). 

Yield of water. — Where the drift has considerable thickness it 
generally includes deposits of sand and gravel that will produce 
water supplies adequate for all ordinary purposes, but where it is 
less than 100 feet thick it may not contain a reliable water-bearing 
bed. In the northwestern part of the county, especially in the town- 
ships mentioned above, the drift is not an entirely satisfactory source 
of supply, although in a large portion of these townships it is the only 
available source. 

Head of the water. — The water from the glacial drift is generally 
under considerable pressure but is not known to rise above the sur- 
face. The flowing wells in the southwest are supposed to be supplied 
from the Cretaceous rocks, but no record could be obtained of most 
of them, and it is possible that some end in the drift. Many springs 
60920°— wsp 256—11 20 



306 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

issue from the sides of the Minnesota Valley, and these have lowered 
the head of the water beneath the adjacent uplands. 

Quality of the water. — The analyses given in the accompanying 
table (p. 313) reveal a wide range in the mineral composition of the 
water. The Walnut Grove analysis (No. 5) represents a very poor 
variety of water that is not uncommon in the drift of the region; 
the Redwood Falls analyses (Nos. 1 and 2) are perhaps more typical 
of the average water from this source. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — Throughout most of this county Cretaceous strata 
lie beneath the. drift. In the southwest they have a thickness of 
several hundred feet, but they thin out toward the east and north. 
They occur everywhere in the southern tier of townships and almost 
everywhere in the tier next north. They are also found adjacent 
to Lyon County nearly or quite to the north boundary but are 
absent in the vicinity of Vesta and Seaforth and in much of the 
northwestern part of the county. Small and irregularly distributed 
areas containing thin deposits of this age are concealed below the 
drift in the northeastern part, but the accurate mapping of these 
patches can not be accomplished until many more well sections are 
available than at present. 

The following specific data bear on the occurrence of the Cretaceous 
in this county: (1) At Tracy, 1 mile west of the county line, a series 
of Cretaceous shales and sandstones about 450 feet thick has been 
penetrated. (2) At Walnut Grove there is a considerable thickness 
of the same series but no definite section is available. (3) Near 
Pell Creek, along the road from Revere to Lamberton, Cretaceous 
clay and sandstone come to the surface, and in the SE. \ sec. 11, T. 
109 N., R. 38 W., shale was struck at a depth of 110 feet. (4) At 
Lamberton an 80-foot stratum of shale was reached at a little more 
than 200 feet below the surface. (5) In Sanborn a sandstone and 
shale series was entered at a depth of 217 feet and was penetrated for 
53 feet. (6) A few miles east of Sanborn, along Cottonwood River, 
Cretaceous outcrops are found. (It seems probable that the deposits 
of Cretaceous clay, sandstone, etc., exposed in the outcrops lie 
above the thicker shale beds encountered in drilling and are not 
generally differentiated from the drift in well sections.) (7) Near 
Cottonwood River, south of Milroy, a number of deep wells have 
been sunk and shale and sandstone about 400 feet in thickness 
have been penetrated by the drill. (8) In the village of Milroy 
shale is encountered at a depth of only 35 feet, and it seems to have 
been penetrated for about 230 feet. (9) In the southwestern corner 
of Underwood Township (T. 112 N., R. 39 W.), a 75-foot stratum 
of blue shale, underlain by white sand, was reached 45 feet below 



KEDWOOD COUNTY. 307 

the surface. (10) One mile west of Lucan, on the farm of Patrick 
Curtin, NE. f sec. 20, T. Ill N., R. 38 W., shale was found at a 
depth of 70 feet. (11) At Clements the same material was struck 
at 115 feet and was penetrated only a short distance. (12) In the 
valley of Redwood River below the falls and in the Minnesota Valley 
between Redwood Falls and Morton outcrops of thin Cretaceous 
strata are found. a (13) In the northern part of the county shale 
has been encountered in drilling. 

There are two phases of the Cretaceous in this region. One 
phase, which consists of rapidly alternating and imperfectly assorted 
strata of clay, sand, sandstone, etc., indicates by the rude stratifica- 
tion the cross-bedding of the sandstone, the red oxidized character 
of much of the clay, the lignite beds, the fossil leaves, and other 
features that the conditions of deposition were nonmarine or littoral. 
The other phase consists for the most part of a thoroughly assorted 
series of soft shale and sandstone, the shale greatly predominating 
and having a characteristic gray-blue color. It attains a maximum 
thickness in this State of at least 500 feet, and was evidently laid 
down in a large and quiet body of water, where thorough assortment 
and stratification were possible. It is to be correlated with the 
Cretaceous in South Dakota and other Western States. These two 
phases are described in the reports on Brown and Lyon counties 
where they are respectively best developed. Their exact relation 
to each other has not been determined. The series in the western 
and southern parts of Redwood County belongs to the Lyon County 
phase, and the rocks in the northeastern part belong with those in 
Brown County. 

Yield of water. — Where the Cretaceous is several hundred feet 
thick it will yield moderately large quantities of water, as is illustrated 
by the 6-inch city well at Tracy, which is pumped at the rate of 50 
gallons a minute, and by the 6-inch village well at Walnut Grove, 
which is pumped at the rate of 35 gallons a minute. In general it 
may be said that in the vicinity of Milroy and thence southward 
and southeastward to Walnut Grove and Revere the Cretaceous can 
be depended on for adequate supplies, but that northeast of Lamber- 
ton and Lucan it is generally absent or devoid of any good water- 
bearing stratum, though in a few localities it will furnish some water. 

Head of the water. — The Cretaceous area of flowing wells, the extent 
of which is shown in Plate IV, projects from Lyon County into the 
southwestern part of this county. The southwestern margin of 
the area enters the county about 4 miles north of the southern 
boundary and thence passes to Walnut Grove and approximately 
to the Cottonwood county line. It enters the county between the 
1,200-foot and 1,300-foot contours and gradually descends until it 

a Upham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, pp. 570, 572, and 578. 



308 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

nearly coincides with the latter. The northeastern margin enters 
the county about 3 miles north of Cottonwood River and for some 
distance runs roughly parallel to that stream but eventually crosses 
it and passes southward to Revere, where there are several flowing 
wells. The northeastern margin is determined to a great degree 
by the thinning out of the Cretaceous and the consequent failure of 
the deep artesian beds; this condition is more fully discussed in the 
report on Lyon County. However, throughout the flowing area 
the head is not great and the natural flow never exceeds a few 
gallons a minute. Moreover, immediately outside of this area there 
are wells in which the water rises nearly to the surface. Thus in 
the Cretaceous wells at Walnut Grove it fails only by a few feet to 
reach the top, and in the similar wells at Milroy it comes within 15 
to 20 feet of the top. 

Quality of the water. — The Cretaceous contains both hard and soft 
water zones. At Milroy soft water is reported at a depth of about 
100 feet and hard water at about 260 feet. South of that village a 
number of wells 300 to 500 feet deep yield hard water, and in the 
vicinity of Walnut Grove and Revere the principal zones to a depth 
of at least 300 feet supply soft water. (See the analyses given in 
the accompanying table.) The Sanborn analyses may represent a 
mixture of drift and Cretaceous waters. 

SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

The Sioux quartzite, which attains a relatively great thickness 
farther south, projects into the southern part of Redwood County 
in the form of a wedge between the Cretaceous and the granite. At 
Lamberton it is reported to have a thickness of several hundred feet. 
It is probably of no economic value in this county as a source of water. 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 
ARCHEAN PROPER. 

The Archean consists of granite and gneiss, which constitute the 
basal rocks. Throughout the northern and eastern parts of the 
County it is everywhere relatively near the surface. In the vicinity 
of Seaforth three outcrops are known, and there are several others 
in Yellow Medicine County, within a mile or two of the boundary 
line; it is frequently encountered in drilling in this region. Moreover, 
in the Minnesota Valley and in the Redwood Valley both above and 
below the falls it is exposed. In the southern part of the county, 
however, the granitic surface descends and within a short distance 
is many hundreds of feet below the surface. Thus at Tracy, Lyon 
County, it occurs at a depth of a little more than 600 feet, or not 
quite 800 feet above sea level, and at Lamberton it was reported 
about 600 feet below the surface, or only 550 feet above the sea. 



EEDWOOD COUNTY. 309 

Farther south it lies at so great a depth that it is very seldom 
reached by the drill. At Blue Earth, Faribault County, and at 
Sioux City, Iowa, it was struck at a level 135 feet below the sea, a 
and at Lemars, Iowa, at 215 feet above the sea. a 

The upper part is generally much altered and passes gradually 
into the unchanged granite. This decomposed mantle is best 
exposed in the gorge of Redwood River below the falls, where it has 
been described by Prof. N. H. Winchell, 6 but the same kind of 
material is encountered in many of the wells of the region. Drillers 
do not always differentiate clearly between the Cretaceous beds and 
the rotted granite, though it is of great practical importance that the 
distinction be made. Brilliant colors (red, yellow, green, white, 
etc.), flakes of mica or steatite, which give the drillings a silvery 
appearance not possessed by the Cretaceous shale ("soapstone"), 
transparent and angular grains of quartz, which give a gritty character 
never found in the shale, and hard quartzose ("glassy") layers 
alternating with soft material, all indicate that the granitic residuum 
has been reached. 

WHITE CLAY. 

Material from an outcrop near Morton, in Renville County, is 
described as follows by N. H. Winchell: 

A substance was met here for the first time which was afterward seen at a number 
of places. Its origin seems to be dependent upon the granite. Its association is so 
close that it seems to be the result of a change in the granite itself. It lies first under 
the drift, or under the Cretaceous rocks, where they overlie the granite, and passes 
by slow changes into the granite. It has some of the characters of steatite and some 
of those of kaolin . In some places it seems to be a true kaolin . It is known by the people 
as "Castile soap." It cuts like soap, has a blue color when fresh or kept wet, but a 
laded and yellowish ash color when weathered, and when long and perfectly weathered 
is white and glistening. The boys cut it into the shapes of pipes and various toys. 
It appears like the pipestone, though less heavy and less hard, and has a very different 
color. It is said to harden by heating. This substance, which may, at least provi- 
sionally, be denominated a kaolin, seems to be the result of the action of water on the 
underlying granite. Since it prevails in the Cretaceous areas, and is always present, 
so far as known, whenever the Cretaceous deposits have preserved it from disruption 
by the glacier period, it may be attributed to the action of the Cretaceous ocean. 
In some places it is gritty, and in others it may be completely pulverized in the 
fingers. A great abundance of this material exists in the banks of the Birch Coolie, 
within a short distance of its mouth. 

Since the above statements were made, this clay, which is com- 
monly whiter and less ferruginous than the sample described, has 
been found in scores of deep wells, and thus much additional evidence 
has been obtained as to its distribution and character. All this new 
evidence, however, corroborates Winchell's statements that it overlies 
the granite, into which it passes by slow changes, and that it prevails 

a Norton, W. H., Geol. Survey Iowa, vol. 6, 1896, pp. 227-229, 232, 233, and 235. 
b Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 571. 
c Second Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1873, p. 163. 



310 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



in the Cretaceous areas and is generally present wherever the Cre- 
taceous deposits have preserved it. A conception of its wide distri- 
bution can be gained by referring to the reports of the counties in 
which the Archean lies beneath the Cretaceous. In this county it 
is exposed in the valleys of Minnesota and Redwood rivers and has 
frequently been reached in drilling, especially in the vicinity of Vesta 
and Seaforth, where it is near the surface. 

In the gorge of Redwood River decomposed granite occurs which 
has a matrix of white clay very similar to the white clay under 
discussion, except that it is less compact. In this matrix are imbed- 
ded the angular, transparent grains of quartz which existed in the 
mother rock. It is the thoroughly weathered and leached granitic 
residuum left in its original position. On the south side of the wagon 
road from Redwood Falls to Morton, where the descent is made from 
the upland into the valley, there is a typical exposure of the white 
clay. It is here evidently of sedimentary origin, as it is free from 
quartz grains and lies above a stratified layer of grit. The outcrop 
appears nearly white. Two samples, one from each of the above- 
described exposures, were analyzed for the United States Geological 
Survey by Prof. F. F. Grout, of the University of Minnesota, with 
the results shown below. In preparing sample 1 the white matrix 
was washed out from the quartz grains, so that the latter do not 
enter into the analysis. No. 3, which gives the composition of 
kaolin, is inserted for comparison. 

Composition of granitic residuum, white clay, and kaolin. 



Silica (SiOa) 

Alumina (AI2O3) a 
H2O on ignition. . . 



1. 
Gra- 
nitic re- 
siduum. 



45.92 
39.84 
14.12 



2. 

White 
clay. 



43.86 
41.82 
14.65 



3. 

Kaolin. 



46.5 
39.5 
14.0 



a With the alumina of No. 1 is associated a trace of iron, and with that of No. 2 a little iron and about 
0.3 per cent of titanium oxide (Ti02). 

The analyses show that the composition of the white clay is similar 
to that of the granitic residuum, and that both are similar to kaolin. 
It will be seen, however, that the white clay and, to a less extent, 
the residuum are a little higher in alumina and a little lower in silica 
than kaolin, as a result, according to Professor Grout, of the presence 
of small amounts of beauxite. The white color is due to the fact that 
the iron has nearly all been leached out. 

Well sections and outcrops show that in some places the white 
clay contains imbedded grains of quartz and is clearly residual, as in 
the exposure in the Redwood gorge; that in others it is entirely free 
from grit but includes interbedded strata of sand, as in the Tracy 
well, the exposure near Morton, etc.; and that in still others quartz 
grains are present in the lower part and absent in the upper, as in 



REDWOOD COUNTY. 311 

many wells in Renville County. In brief, the white clay consists 
in part of granitic residuum, and in part of sedimentary deposits 
derived therefrom. a Essentially this conclusion has been reached 
by Warren Upham and others. b 

It is important that drillers should distinguish this clay both from 
the ordinary Cretaceous shale and from the ordinary decomposed 
granite, because its significance as to water supplies is somewhat 
different from that of either. It does not usually yield water, but 
the interbedded layers of grit, where they occur, may furnish adequate 
supplies. A number of good wells draw from this source, but there 
are also many instances on record where drilling into the clay has 
resulted in failure. The white clay is always a warning that the drill 
is approaching granite. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Redwood Falls. — The city of Redwood Falls is located at the point 
where Redwood River cascades over the granite ledges into a steep 
and rugged gorge. The granite is everywhere relatively near the 
surface. The public supply is derived from two springs about 1 mile 
south of the city, on the east bank of the river. They issue from a 
bed of gravel immediately above the granite, and in dry years their 
yield is not great. The water is hard and will form scale in boilers, as 
the analysis in the table shows (p. 313) . Approximately 1,000 people 
are supplied, and the average daily consumption amounts to about 
30,000 gallons. The railway company takes water from a shallow 
well and also uses the public supply, and at the 'mill water from the 
river is used. The private wells are shallow and unsatisfactory. 

Lamberton. — The following is the approximate section for the local- 
ity of Lamberton as revealed in the deep drilling done for the village. 

Well section at Lamberton. - 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Yellow clay 

Sand (thin) 

Blue clay 

Quicksand 

Blue clay 

White material (Cretaceous) . 

Blue shale (Cretaceous) 

Red quartzite (Algonkian).. 
Granite (Archean). 



Feet. 

35 

135 
3 

50± 

2 

80 

300 ± 



Feet. 

35 

170 

173 

223 ± 

225± 

305± 

605± 



o The information was derived from several sources, and there is some question as to the correctness of 
the lower portion of the section. 

The public supply is derived from an 8-inch well, which draws its 
water through an open end from a gravel bed 19 inches thick 64 feet 
below the surface. The water rises to a level 30 feet below the 



a The decomposition of an igneous rock which contains no quartz might produce a white clay free from 
grit, but this can not be the entire explanation in southwestern Minnesota. 

& Upham, Warren, The glacial Lake Agassiz: Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 25, 1895, pp. 88-90. Also 
Hall, C M., and Willard, D. E., Casselton-Fargo folio (No. 117), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Suivey, 
1905, p. 2. 



312 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

surface. When the well was completed (1901) it was tested for thirty- 
six hours continuously at the rate of 60 gallons a minute, and at pres- 
ent it is pumped at about 35 gallons a minute. The water is hard. 
Approximately 10,000 gallons is consumed daily. Private wells, 
which furnish the supply for most of the inhabitants, have an average 
depth of about 40 feet and their yield is closely dependent on the 
amount of precipitation. 

Walnut Grove. — The public supply for the village of Walnut Grove 
is obtained from a 6-inch well 312 feet deep, in which the water rises 
within 12 feet of the surface, or 1,216 feet above sea level. The well 
was tested at the rate of 37 gallons a minute for eight hours continu- 
ously. The water is soft but rich in sodium and potassium. Approxi- 
mately 3,000 gallons is consumed daily, and about 300 people, nearly 
three-fourths of the total population, are supplied. The railway 
company uses a soft-water well which is a few feet deeper than the 
village well. Three analyses of deep water will be found in the table. 

Sanborn. — The following section is reported from Sanborn village: 

Well section at Sanborn. 
[Authority, C. S. Hall, resident engineer Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company, Sanborn.] 



Blue clay, etc 

Sandstone (Cretaceous) . 
Hard shale (Cretaceous) . 
Sandstone (Cretaceous) . 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 

217 

13 

20 

20 



Depth. 



Feet. 
21J 
230 
250 

. 270 



FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

Drilled wells are most numerous in the flowing area and adjacent 
parts, that is, in the southwestern portion of the county, where the 
Cretaceous is a sure source of supply. They have an advantage over 
the shallower- bored wells in that they can be sunk to beds which in 
most of this area will yield flows of soft water. Flowing wells, those 
that end in sandstone and those that are 4 inches or more in diameter, 
are generally finished with open ends, but others must be provided 
with screens to keep out the sand. Where the water is truly soft the 
screens will give no trouble, but where it is hard they become incrusted 
in a few years by the precipitation of calcium carbonate and other 
mineral matter. 

In the area northeast of a line drawn through Lamberton and 
Lucan (including by far the greater part of Redwood County) bored 
and dug wells greatly predominate. As the depth to the impervious 
formations in this area averages probably not more than 200 feet and 
is locally much less, it is necessary to procure water relatively near 
the surface; and as larger supplies can be developed from weak zones 
by means of bored or dug wells than by means of the ordinary drilled 
wells there is reason for preferring the former type. 



REDWOOD COUNTY. 



313 



SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 



In the area which lies southwest of a line drawn through Revere 
and Milroy wells yielding moderate supplies can be obtained at depths 
ranging from 100 to 500 feet. In a large part of this region the water 
will flow and much of it is soft (PL IV) . 

In the remaining portion of the county supplies can for the most 
part be procured only in the upper 200 or 300 feet, no flows are to be 
expected, and the water is usually hard. Every effort should here be 
made to finish wells in the deposits of sand and gravel interbedded 
with the yellow and blue bowlder clays near the surface. Any one 
of the following kinds of material may be found immediately below 
the bowlder clay: (1) Blue shale or "soapstone," (2) white clay, 
(3) decomposed granite, or (4) unaltered granite. If blue shale is 
encountered, drilling should be continued, as a water-bearing stratum 
may yet be found; if the white clay is reached the chances of obtaining 
water are poorer but there is still some reason for hope; if decomposed 
granite is entered, the chances are still poorer; and when the granite 
becomes hard drilling should invariably be stopped. It is important 
to understand the difference between the blue shale, the white clay, 
and the decomposed granite. There is no good reason for abandon- 
ing a drill hole when blue shale is struck, but this is frequently done. 

Mineral analyses of water in Redwood County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, 
etc.). 



3. 4. 5. 6. 



(?) 



Cretaceous 



11. 12. 



Depth feet. 

Diameter of well inches . 

Silica (SiOa) 

Iron (Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe203 

+AI2O3) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) . 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



275 
8 



26 



312 
C 
12 
3.8 



322 
f2and 
I 11 



325 

7 



199 
66 
26 

542' 
361 

7 



1.4 
158 
50 
26 



511 

207 
355 



222 
100 
51 



196 
49 
156 



543 

187 

12 



370 
39 
2.5 



1,371 

1,683 

13 



470 
180 
1.3 



520 

594 

19 



383 
672 

8.4 



202 
660 
25 



1,296 



1,173 



17 

12 

423 

268 
709 
23 

1,345' 



2.6 


1 


57 


32 


12 


7 


508 


457 


371 


701 


912 


450 


29 


40 



1,816 



1,339 



1. Springs which furnish the principal part of the public supply at Redwood Falls. They are located 
about 1 mile south of the city and a short distance south of the pumping station, in a ravine on the east 
side of Redwood River. August 30, 1907. 

2. Mixture from all the springs which contribute to the public supply at Redwood Falls. November 
2, 1893. 

3. Well at Vesta. November 27, 1899. 

4. Well at Vesta. September 30, 1899. 

5. Former railway well at Walnut Grove. February, 1S90. 

6. Railway well at Wabasso. January 24, 1902. 

7. Well at Sanborn. September 15, 1899. 

8. Railway well at Sanborn. December 2, 1899. 

9. Flowing well at Revere. January 26, 1899. 

10. Village well at Walnut Grove. August 14, 1907. 

11. Well at Walnut Grove, owned by the municipality. July 31, 1895. 

12. Railway well at Walnut Grove. April 13, 1891. 

Analyses 1 and 10 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, chemist 
Minnesota state board of health; the others were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and 
Northwestern Railway Company. 



314 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

RENVILLE COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Renville County constitutes for the most part a 
very gently undulating drift plain covered with a plexus of lakes, 
ponds, and swamps. The monotony of this plain is interrupted only 
along the southwestern margin, where Minnesota River flows through 
a valley 1 to 3 miles wide and 175 to 200 feet deep, and where many 
short, rugged tributary gorges dissect the level uplands. Much the 
greater part of the county still retains the gentle prairie topography 
inherited from the Pleistocene epoch, and is quite unmodified by 
postglacial erosion. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The glacial drift is found everywhere except in 
parts of the Minnesota Valley and its tributaries, where underlying 
formations are exposed. Owing to irregularities in the surface on 
which it rests its thickness varies somewhat, but in general increases 
from the Minnesota Valley eastward and northward, attaining a 
maximum of more than 400 feet, and having an average for the 
county of perhaps 250 feet. The following table shows the thickness 
of the drift and the altitude of the surface upon which it rests in the 
different localities of the county : 

Thickness and altitude of drift in Renville County. 



Locality. 


Thick- 
ness of 
drift. 


Altitude 
of surface 
on which 

drift 

rests. 




Feet. 
264 
297 
280 
438 
340 

122 
202 


Feet. 
790 




770 




800 




635 




725 




850 


Franklin 


900 




840 







Yield of water. — The beds of sand and gravel, which occur at 
different depths, constitute the water-bearing members of the drift. 
The supplies from the shallow beds are generally meager and are 
readily affected by drought, but the yield of the deeper zones is 
generous and permanent. In many places at or near the base of 
the drift there is a thick stratum of sand and gravel (PL XV) that 
will furnish large quantities of water. The 6-inch village well at 
Renville, which is 236 feet deep, has been tested at the rate of 50 
gallons a minute for eight hours continuously; the 6-inch village 



BENVILLE COUNTY. 



315 



well at Olivia, which is 320 feet deep, has been tested at 60 gallons 
a minute for twenty-four hours continuously; the 8-inch village 
well at Bird Island, which is supplied from about 200 feet below the 
surface, has been tested at 100 gallons a minute for several hours 
continuously; the 10-inch railway well at the same place, which 
also derives its water from a depth of about 200 feet, has been tested 
at 105 gallons a minute for forty-eight hours continuously; and the 
new 8-inch village well at Hector, which is 400 feet deep, has been 
tested at 60 gallons a minute for twelve hours continuously. In 
the southern part of the county, where the drift is not as thick as 
elsewhere, the underlying formations are sometimes penetrated 
before a satisfactory supply is obtained. 

Head of the water. — Throughout most of the county the water 
rises nearly to the surface, but no flowing wells have been reported. 
In the vicinity of the Minnesota Valley the head is lower than else- 
where, because of the water lost through the numerous large springs 
in the valley. The following table shows the height to which the 
water rises in the various village wells: 

Head of the water in Renville County. 



Locality. 


Depth to 
top of 
water. 


Head 

above 

sea level. 




Feet. 
50 
14 
30 
12 
10 
50 
80 


Feet. 
1,005 




1,065 




1,050 




1,060 




1,055 




970 




960 







Quality of the water. — Throughout the northeastern part of the 
county the water from the deep beds of the drift Is lower in total 
mineralization, total hardness, and permanent hardness than that 
from the shallow sources. This is shown by the accompanying table 
of analyses. In the southern and western parts of the county, where 
the drift has only a moderate thickness, the difference between the 
shallow and deep waters is less marked. 

The deep-drift water differs both from the shallow-drift water 
and from the Cretaceous water which exists west of this county. 
In its content of calcium and magnesium it is intermediate between 
the two — the shallow-drift water containing large amounts, the 
Cretaceous water small amounts, and the deep-drift water moderate 
amounts of these elements. In its content of sodium and potassium 
the deep-drift water approximates rather closely to the shallow- 
drift water, both containing moderate quantities of these elements, 
whereas the Cretaceous water contains large quantities. In its 
content of sulphates it differs sharply from the other two in that it is 



316 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

low in this constituent, whereas they are very high. These differ- 
ences seem to indicate that the deep water in this county is not 
derived entirely from the overlying drift nor from the Cretaceous 
to the west, nor yet from a mingling of the waters from these two 
sources. 

An interesting phenomenon noticed in the northern part of the 
county is the presence of inflammable gas which is brought up in 
small quantities with the water from a number of the deeper wells. 

CRETACEOUS AND ARCIIEAN ROCKS. 
DESCRIPTION. 

At various points along the valley of the Minnesota are found out- 
crops of stratified rocks consisting of blue, black, green, and white 
shales, and of marl, limestone, coal, sand, sandstone, etc. The 
section exposed is everywhere thin and changes within short distances 
from one kind of material to another. In some places Cretaceous 
fossils have been found in these deposits and there is little doubt 
that they are all Cretaceous in age. The outcrops that have been 
described in this county can be summed up as follows: 

1. In sec 10, T. 112 N., R. 34 W., on the north side of Minnesota 
River, up the valley of a small creek, are outcrops, described by 
N. H. Winchell, a of concretionary marl or limy earth of a white color, 
which he refers to the Cretaceous. 

2. Warren Upham b described exposures of Cretaceous clay or shale 
along Fort Creek, in sec. 31, T. 112 N., R. 32 W. At one place 
these contain a thin layer of limestone and at another a seam of 
clayey lignite. He also described an exposure near the foot of the 
bluff of the Minnesota Valley, in the NE. { sec. 34, T. 112 N., R. 33 
W., which consists of gray Cretaceous shale visible to a thickness of 
7 feet. 

3. C. W. Hall c described an exposure of white sandstone along 
the wagon road in the same section, and also in the gorge of Birch 
Coulee at the border of sees. 32 and 33, T. 113 N., R. 34 W., and in 
sec. 28, T. 113 N., R. 34 W. This sandstone is exposed for 12 or 15 
feet. 

Beneath the Cretaceous rocks is a white or nearly white noncal- 
careous clay which consists largely of kaolin. In some places it is 
entirely free from grit, in others it contains embedded grains of 
quartz, and in still others it is free from grit at the top but contains 
embedded quartz grains at the bottom. This clay was described by 
N. H. Winchell, d and a quotation from his description appears in 

o Second Aon. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1S73, p. 187. 
& Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1SS5, p. 197. 
c Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 157, 1899, pp. 42 and 43. 
d Second Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1S73, p. 163. 



RENVILLE COUNTY. 317 

the report on Redwood County (p. 309). It has been encountered in 
many wells in Renville County and in other parts of southwestern 
Minnesota where granite is reached in drilling, and without doubt 
owes its origin to the decomposition of the granitic rocks on which it 
rests. Where it is thin and contains embedded grains of quartz it is 
probably the undisturbed granitic residuum, but where it has a con- 
siderable thickness, is free from quartz grains, and contains inter- 
bedded layers of grit it has evidently been handled by water and is a 
sedimentary rather than a residual deposit. If this sedimentation 
took place at the time when the Cretaceous seas invaded the region, 
as would seem probable, it is a sort of basal formation belonging to 
the Cretaceous. Evidently it is not always possible, especially in 
well sections, to locate the precise boundary between the granitic 
residuum and the Cretaceous. In the maps and sections the white 
clay is included with the granitic residuum except where it is evidently 
Cretaceous. Though this method is somewhat arbitrary it represents 
the facts as accurately as is feasible. 

Beneath the white clay there is generally decomposed granite, 
which plainly shows its origin and which gradually gives place 
downward to the firm, unaltered rock. 

The Cretaceous rocks are nowhere thick and are absent in some 
parts of the county; the white clay is found chiefly in the southern 
part. In some places the Cretaceous rocks, the white clay, and the 
decomposed granite have all been swept away by the invading ice 
sheets, and the glacial drift rests immediately upon hard granitic 
rock. 

Plate XV gives a detailed section across the northern part of Ren- 
ville County along the line of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paid 
Railway. In the east (Hector and Buffalo Lake) the glacial drift 
seems to rest directly upon the granite, but in the west (Renville, 
Olivia, and Bird Island) a certain amount of shale and decomposed 
granite forms the transition between the drift and the unaltered 
granite. It is not everywhere certain at what point the boundary 
should be drawn between the Cretaceous and the granitic residuum. 

The following sections of wells are given to illustrate the character 
of the formations in the southern part of the county: ° 

Section at Fairfax (mill tvell). 



Yellow bowlder clay 

Blue bowlder clay 

Sand 

Blue bowlder clay 

White, putty-like material free of grit 

White, putty-like material containing grit (water). 
Decomposed granite (water) 

Granitic rock. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 

20 

165 

1 

16 

36 



Depth. 



Feet. 
20 
1S5 
1S6 
202 

238 



o Principal authorities, John Ford, driller, Franklin, and B. Henderson, Fairfax, 



318 UNDEBGBOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 

Well section at Franklin. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Yellow bowlder clay 
Blue bowlder clay. . 

Sand and gravel 

White clay. 
Granite. 



Feet. 
110 
12 



Well section at Morton (Catholic church). 



Thick- 
ness. 



Coarse gravel 
White clay. . 
Sand (water) 
White clay. . 
Sandstone . . . 



Feet. 

40 

75 

3 

27 



Section of well 1 mile north of Morton, on the farm of John Eder. 



Yellow bowlder clay 

Blue bowlder clay 

White clay 

Sand and gravel (hard water) 




Section of well 2h miles north of Morton, on the farm of Peter Kavney. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Bowlder clay 

' Hardpan"' 

Soft, sticky, blue-gray clay without grit 
"Coal" 

Sand (water). 
White clay. 




Section of well 4 miles north of Morton, on the farm of John Jones. 



Yellow bowlder clay 
Blue bowlder clay . . 

White clay 

Sand (water). 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 

124 

6 



RENVILLE COUNTY. 319 

Section of well 4 miles north of Franklin, on the farm of John Drury. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Bowlder clay, etc 

White clay 

Decomposed granite (water). 



Feet. 
130 
168 



Feet. 
130 



The following table shows the approximate depth to the granitic 
surface and its altitude above sea level in the various localities of 
the county: 

Depth and altitude of granitic surface in Renville County. 



Depth to 

granitic 
rock. 



Altitude 

of granitic 

surface. 



Granite Falls (Yellow Medicine County) . 

Renville 

Olivia 

Bird Island 

Hector 

Buffalo Lake 

Morton 

Franklin (bottom of white clay) 

Fairfax (bottom of white clay) 



Feet. 

(a) 

325 

345 

315 

438 

340 

(a) 

150 (?) 

230 



900 
730 
730 
730 
635 
725 
850 
860 
810 



a At surface. 
YIELD OF WATER. 

In the northern part of the county attempts to obtain water in the 
formations beneath the drift have generally failed, but in the southern 
part a number of wells have been reported which derive their supplies 
from layers of sand or sandstone encountered after the Cretaceous 
deposits or the white clay have been entered. This is true of nearly 
all the wells whose sections are given above. The mill well at Fairfax, 
which derives its water from grit and decomposed granite below a 
layer of the white material, received a rather severe test. The fol- 
lowing statement was made by one of the drillers in tins county : 

Beneath the clay (glacial drift) there is a white formation, in general from 30 to 50 
feet thick, beneath which there is rotten granite and then hard red granite. The 
white material is at first soft and putty-like but changes into a harder formation con- 
taining grit. This gritty white material and the decomposed granite usually contain 
a good supply of water. 

QUALITY OF THE WATER. 

The water from beneath the white clay is of various mineral char- 
acter, much of it being very hard but some being similar to the 
deeper drift water. No. 15 in the table (p. 324), the only analysis that 
was made of water from this source, represents an extremely hard 
water. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Renville. — The granitic surface seems to be somewhat irregular in the 
vicinity of Renville. The assertion is made that it was encountered 



320 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

at a depth of 250 feet in drilling done for the village, but in the 
railway well a considerably greater depth was reached before granite 
was struck (PI. XV). Meager supplies of hard water are obtained 
near the surface, and more abundant supplies of softer water from 
the deposits of sand and gravel at the base of the drift (between 
about 190 and 265 feet below the surface), but no deeper water zones 
exist. 

The public supply is derived from a well 236 feet deep, winch has 
already been referred to (pp. 314-315). About 300 people use the 
water, and 10,000 gallons is consumed daily. An analysis is given in 
the table. Perhaps three-fourths of the inhabitants use water from 
private wells, which have an average depth of about 25 feet and are 
generally cased with wood or brick. The railway company uses a 
well that admits water from the sand stratum between 240 to 264 
feet below the surface. 

Olivia. — When the deep drilling for the village of Olivia was done 
the stratigraphic record was carefully kept, and tins record forms the 
basis of the section given in Plate XV to a depth of 349 feet. There 
is some uncertainty as to the exact depth at which the decomposed 
granite was entered. The upper portions of the glacial drift yield 
small amounts of hard water, but the sand and gravel at a depth of 
about 300 feet, at the base of the drift, furnish adequate quantities 
of softer water. 

The public supply is obtained from a well 320 feet deep, the data 
in regard to which have already been given. The water, an analysis 
of which will be found in the table (p. 324), has little permanent hard- 
ness and will not form much hard scale in boilers. About 250 people 
use the water, and it is also used at the canning factory, mill, and 
laundry, approximately 17,000 gallons being consumed daily. The 
creamery is supplied from a shallow well which yields harder water, 
and about three-fourths of the people use water from private wells, 
most of which are dug or bored and end in yellow clay or sandy 
deposits at depths of 20 to 30 feet. One private drilled well similar 
to the village well was reported. 

Bird Island. — There are several water-bearing beds in the glacial 
drift at Bird Island, the upper ones yielding harder water than those 
that lie deeper. Apparently there is no water-bearing formation at 
a greater depth than 230 feet (PI. XV). 

The public supply is obtained from an 8-inch well which was drilled 
to a depth of 298 feet but which receives its water from about 200 
feet below the surface. As the analysis in the table shows, the water 
has little permanent hardness and will not form much hard scale in 
boilers. Approximately 16,000 gallons is reported to.be consumed 
daily, but only a small proportion of the inhabitants use the public 
water. The majority of the private wells are dug or bored to depths 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE XV 




options IN RENVILLE COUNTY. 

GEOLOGIC SECTIONS m 

By 0. E. Meinzer. 

„ .„ . Bird Island.— Railway well; reported by Mi". Hayden. 

teu(W 'V^wy well. Authority, Mr. Hayden, water-supply supenn- Hector.— Railway well; reported by Mr. ^^ „ f dri Urngs aud from 

ml • ^^ and Dakota division, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Bufialo La ke.^Village wells; from an examination 

? a .y, blencoe. various reports. 
an(lrmt7^ eu PP el ' 349 £ eet represents deep drilling done for the village 
^ported by the village authorities. 



RENVILLE COUNTY. 321 

of about 20 to 40 feet, but there are also a few drilled wells which 
obtain more satisfactory supplies from about 200 feet below the 
surface. The railway company is supplied from a well that was 
drilled to a depth of 375 feet but derives its water from between the 
depths of 190 and 230 feet. 

Fairfax.— Water is obtained at Fairfax from the various beds in 
the glacial drift and from a sandy zone between the white clay and 
the decomposed granite. (See the section given above.) The public 
waterworks are supplied from a 6-inch well which is finished with an 
open end in a layer of sand at a depth of 185 feet, gravel having been 
put into the well to act as a screen. It is pumped at 10 or 20 gallons 
a minute and should not be pumped at a more rapid rate as long as it 
has an open end. The water, which is used only to a small extent, is 
hard and is objected to because of the iron which it contains. Most of 
the private wells are bored or dug into the yellow clay or sand near the 
surface and are readily afTected by drought, but there are a few 
deeper drilled wells. The well at the flouring mill, which is 234 feet 
deep and derives its supply from immediately above the granite, 
yields water that is reported to be harder than that from the glacial 
drift. This water probably belongs to the same type as that from 
John Eder's well, north of Morton, an analysis of which is given in 
the table. 

Hector. — At Hector the best water-bearing bed, both as to quality 
and quantity, is the deposit of sand and gravel immediately above 
the granite (PI. XV). 

The public supply is obtained from two wells. The old well has 
a depth of 380 feet, of which the upper 35 feet is 12 feet in diameter 
and cased with brick and the remaining portion is 9 inches in diameter 
and has an iron casing with a screen at the bottom. The new well 
is 400 feet deep and 8 inches in diameter and is also finished with a 
screen. The water is relatively soft and will form almost no hard 
scale in boilers. An analysis is given in the table. At the time the 
waterworks were visited (1907), the combined yield of the two wells 
was small and inadequate, but it seemed probable that this was due 
to some mechanical difficulty rather than to the limitations of the 
water-bearing bed itself. When the new well was completed (1902), 
it is reported to have been pumped at the rate of 60 gallons a minute 
for twelve hours continuously. By far the greater number of the 
people use water from private wells, most of which are shallow. The 
railway company has an 8-inch well that was drilled to a depth of 
728 feet but derives its supply from the sand and gravel above the 
granite. An analysis of this water, which resembles that from the 
village well, will be found in the accompanying table (p. 324). The 
mill also is supplied from a deep well. 
60920°— wsp 256—11 21 



322 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Morton. — The village of Morton is situated on the north bank of 
Minnesota Kiver and lies in the valley and on the valley side. The 
granite is at or near the surface and there is no deep water-bearing 
bed. There are numerous springs on the flanks of the valley, one 
of which, situated east of the village and at a higher altitude, fur- 
nishes the public supply. The water from this spring flows directly 
into the mains and gives a pressure sufficient for ordinary purposes, 
and water pumped from the spring into a reservoir on the uplands 
furnishes the greater pressure necessary in case of fire. The yield 
of this spring is not great. At the time it was visited (1907) it did 
not supply the pump operated at the rate of about 30 gallons a 
minute, and in dry years the yield is reported to be inadequate. 
The water is hard, as is shown by the analysis given in the table. 
Perhaps one-fourth of the people use water from private wells, most 
of which are shallow and furnish only meager supplies. 

Sacred Heart. — Deep drilling has never been undertaken in Sacred 
Heart, but it is probable that the granitic rocks occur at no great 
depth. The public supply is obtained from a well 14 feet in diameter 
and 40 feet deep, which is cased with brick and mortar. It passes 
through yellow and blue bowlder clay and ends in a layer of coarse 
sand. In 1907 the water normally rose within 18 feet of the surface, 
and pumping at the rate of 50 gallons a minute for four hours con- 
tinuously lowered this level 4 or 5 feet. The water is used by about 
125 people, perhaps 80 per cent of the inhabitants being supplied 
from private wells, which are generally dug to a depth of about 30 
feet and end in sand or gravel. 

Franklin. — Franklin village is located on the level upland near 
the cliffs of the Minnesota Valley. The glacial drift is about 120 feet 
deep, the basal 10 feet of it consisting of water-bearing sand and 
gravel. Below the drift are the white clay and the granitic rocks. 
(See the section given above.) 

The public supply is obtained from a well 6 feet in diameter and 
108 feet deep, which is cased with boiler iron. This well reaches to 
the sand and gravel layer mentioned above. The upper portion of 
the layer consists of very fine sand, which was prevented from rising 
in the well by covering the bottom with 5 wagonloads of gravel. In 
1905, when the well was completed, it was pumped at the rate of 
50 gallons a minute for forty-eight hours continuously, whereby the 
water was lowered 14 inches. About 500 people are supplied, and 
approximately 10,000 gallons is consumed daily. There are only a 
few private wells, and these are shallow and readily affected by 
drought. 

Buffalo Lake. — At the village of Buffalo Lake there is a thin layer 
of water-bearing sand or gravel at a depth of about 100 feet and 
another at about 200 feet, both of which belong to the glacial drift. 



RENVILLE COUNTY. 323 

Granite occurs at about 320 feet or somewhat lower, and immediately 
above the granite there is a little water, but not enough to furnish 
a satisfactory supply. The public supply is derived from two wells, 
both of which were drilled to depths between 300 and 400 feet 
(PI. XV). The present supply of the old well comes from the 100- 
foot gravel bed; the new well seems to obtain its water above the 
granite. The yield of each is small. Most of the people use water 
from shallow private wells, but there are a few private drilled wells 
which end in the 100-foot zone, and the well at the mill is reported 
to be about 400 feet deep. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

In the northern part of the county most of the farms are supplied 
from shallow bored wells which end in the upper portion of the drift 
and yield meager and uncertain quantities of hard water, but there 
are a few deeper drilled wells similar to the village and railway wells 
along the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway. The deep wells 
are superior to the shallow ones in the following respects: (1) The 
water is softer, (2) the yield is larger and more permanent, and 
(3) there is less danger of pollution. 

In the southern part of the county there are more drilled wells. 
These range from 2 to 6 inches in diameter, and from less than 100 
to more than 300 feet in depth, but are generally between 100 and 
150 feet. They generally end in the glacial drift, but a few penetrate 
the underlying formations, as has already been explained. The 
shallow wells have hard water but some of the deeper ones yield 
water which is softer. Six-inch drilled wells are recommended for 
farm purposes in all parts of the county. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The principal sources of water are the deposits of sand and gravel 
which occur at various depths interbedded with the bowlder clay or 
lying immediately below it. The shallow deposits furnish only small 
supplies but the deeper ones generally yield abundantly. Moreover, 
the shallow water is hard and the deeper water is commonly much 
softer, especially in the northeastern part of the county. 

Below the glacial drift the drill generally penetrates thin layers of 
blue or green shale "soapstone", a white clay, or ordinary decom- 
posed granite. In the southern part of the county water is obtained 
in some places from sandy layers in these beds, but at best the3^ con- 
stitute only an uncertain source. 

Granite has frequently been encountered at depths ranging up to 
450 feet. It will not yield water and no water-bearing formation 
occurs beneath it, 



324 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Mineral analyses of water in Renville County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches. . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron ( Fe) 

Aluminum ( Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe2C>3+ AI2O3) . . . 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Total solids 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.). 



Upper portion. 



342 

147 

6 



4 
267 
123 
25 

360' 

452 

280 

80 

1.456 



283 
108 
65 



555 

795 

6 



1,538 



Spring. 



48 



113 
34 

12 

449' 
69 
3 

519 



Lower portion. 



160 


190 


211 


6 






59 






3.8 












2.8 


4.5 


4.5 


56 


63 


149 


31 


29 


79 


84 


103 


100 


.0 






463 


452 


528 


13 


104 


417 


40 


13 


13 



Depth feet. 

Diameter of well inches. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Aluminum ( Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe20 3 -|- AI2O3) . . . 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) 

Total solids 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.). 



Lower portion. 



236 
6 
19 



3.2 

67 

25 
120 

.0 
473 
123 

14 



610 



10. 11. 12. 13. 14 



320 
6 
20 



1.4 
42 
23 
122 



457 

1 

11 



2.8 
45 
28 
111 

.0 
522 
17 
13 



483 



298 


390 


8 




20 




.08 




4.5 






9.3 


55 


58 


27 


40 


67 


133 


.0 





660 

40 



400 

8 

11 

8.1 

4.6 



40S 



66 
46 
115 



650 
43 
16 



White 
clay. 



140 



2.4 

339 

159 

35 

.0 

508 

1,120 

3 



1,945 



1. Former village well at Renville. April 24, 1S93. 

2. Well at the Commercial Hotel at Buffalo Lake. September 13, 1907. 

3. Former railway well at Bird Island. May 6, 1S94. 

4. Springs which furnish the public supply at Morton. August 31, 1907. 

5. Well on the farm of John Ford, sec. 1, t. 113 N., R. 34 W. August 31, 1907. 

6. Former railway well at Renville. October 13, 188S. 

7. Railway well at Renville. April 24, 1S93. 

8. Village well at Renville. September 7, 1907. 

9. Former village well at Olivia. January 23, 1901. 

10. Village well at Olivia. September 12,' 1907. 

11. Village well at Bird Island. September 12, 1907. The water comes from a depth of about 190 feet. 

12. Well of Berry Brothers at Hector. August 4, 1S99. 

13. New village well at Hector. September 13, 1907. 

14. Railway well at Hector. December 4, 1900. 

15. Well oh the farm of John Eder, 1 mile north of Morton. August 31, 1907. 

Analyses 2, 4, 5, S, 10, 11, 13, and 15 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whit- 
taker, chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1,3,6, 7, 9, 12, and 14 were furnished by G. N. 
Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 



RICE COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The upland surface of Rice County ranges from 1,000 feet above 
sea level near the northwestern corner to 1,200 feet near the south- 
eastern corner. The greater portion, though rolling, is nearly uni- 



RICE COUNTY. 325 

form in elevation, but the general level is broken by the valleys of 
the Cannon and its tributaries and by morainal ridges which rise 50 
to 100 feet above the surrounding region. The more easterly of 
these ridges is an interrupted belt of irregular hills crossing the 
country from north to south a little east of Faribault. South of this 
city, where the ridge is about 6 miles wide, it is cut near the middle 
by the valley of Straight River. The other moraine is much broader, 
covering the western third of the county and having a maximum 
width of 12 miles, a part of which, however, lies within Lesueur 
County. Between the two moraine belts there are numerous un- 
trained depressions containing lakes and marshes, but in the western 
aoraine lakes are even more abundant. East of the eastern mo- 
raine the surface is much broken by the valley of Cannon River and 
by the valleys tributary to Cannon and Zumbro rivers, but remnants 
of the plateau still remain. The principal stream, Cannon River, 
crosses the county from the southwestern to a point near the north- 
eastern corner, occupying a valley 100 to 200 feet deep, the bottom 
of which is in rock north of Faribault. The smaller streams have 
valleys reaching 100 feet in depth and likewise in many places flow 
over rock, especially in the northeastern part of the county. Ter- 
races one-half to 2 miles or more in width occur along Camion River. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The glacial drift is a heterogeneous pebbly clay with some bowlders 
and interbedded bodies of sand and gravel. Several stages of deposi- 
tion are represented, the older drift forming a belt several miles 
wide along the eastern border and extending westward beneath the 
younger, which covers the central and western parts of the county. 
Both contain sandy or gravelly layers, but these are distinctly more 
numerous in the younger drift than in the older. The total 
thickness varies from less than 50 feet along the river valleys to more 
than 200 feet in the western part of the county. Water occurs in 
considerable quantities in the sandy and gravelly layers and is most 
abundant, because these porous layers are more numerous in the 
younger drift of the western part of the county. The supplies are 
nearly everywhere sufficient for domestic and farm purposes and 
are generally ample for the needs of small industries. 

The terrace gravels include the deposits made by glacial streams 
flowing, from the ice sheet lying to the west, through the Cannon 
River valley to the Mississippi. In the upper courses of the river 
they occupy the full width of the valley, but in the central and north- 
ern part of the county the stream has at present cut far below their 
level and has left them standing as terraces, in some places, as at 
Faribault, from 1 to 2 miles or more in width. There are two distinct 
series of terraces, a lower series, upon which Faribault is situated, 
about 45 feet above the river, and an upper series at a considerably 



326 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

higher level. Their height above the river, however, varies from 
place to place, becoming greater downstream toward the north. The 
gravel of which the terrace deposits are composed readily absorbs 
the water falling on its surface, but it permits an equally ready escape 
to the valleys, for this reason the supplies are usually small near the 
drainage lines. 

During the northward retreat of the ice a small lake was formed 
in front of its margin in the valley of northward-flowing Straight 
River. In this lake were laid considerable amounts of sand and 
gravel of essentially the same character as the terrace deposits. 
Elsewhere in the county there are many areas of stratified gravel and 
sand, interminably intermingled with the terraces on the one hand 
and with the unmodified drift on the other. 

The alluvial deposits include the gravel and sand laid down by 
the existing streams. They are not extensively developed and are 
of little importance with regard to water supplies. Wherever drawn 
upon they yield enough for domestic use. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Galena limestone, Decorah shale, and Platteville limestone 
are all present in this county, with an aggregate thickness of about 
130 feet. Outcrops of the Platteville limestone are found along 
Cannon River, and the Galena limestone lies immediately beneath 
the drift on the uplands near the southeastern corner of the county. 
From well records the Platteville limestone also appears to lie beneath 
the drift of the uplands throughout extensive areas in the north- 
western part of the county. The Galena and Platteville limestones 
furnish only small supplies of water. 

The St. Peter sandstone, which varies in thickness from 160 feet 
to an eroded remnant of only a few feet, is exposed along Cannon 
River from a point above Faribault and lies beneath the uplands 
both east and west of this stream. To the east, and especially to 
the southeast, it generally underlies the Platteville limestone and 
affords good supplies of water under some pressure. 

Northwest of the Cannon the Galena, Decorah, and Platteville 
formations are generally missing and the St. Peter lies immediately 
below the drift. In such localities the water is not under much 
pressure and does not enter the wells as freely as when the forma- 
tion is under cover, though nearly everywhere supplies sufficient 
for domestic and farm purposes can be obtained. 

Thirty-five feet of Shakopee dolomite, a buff to pinkish magnesian 
limestone, is exposed in the Cannon River valley at the north line of 
the county. The formation probably occurs immediately beneath the 
drift near the northwest corner and it underlies the St. Peter through- 
out the remainder of the county. 

The New Richmond sandstone, which probably attains a thick- 
ness locally of 25 feet, dips southeastward below the Shakopee and 



RICE COUNTY. 327 

contains water under pressure at practically all points within the 
county. It affords a valuable supplementary supply where the St. 
Peter sandstone is not under cover or where its supplies have been 
lessened by heavy pumping. 

The Oneota dolomite, a bed of pinkish magnesian limestone attain- 
ing 150 feet in thickness, lies beneath the New Richmond and affords 
a cap to confine the waters of the underlying Jordan sandstone. 

The Jordan sandstone, which should be reached at 200 or 225 feet 
below the bottom of the St. Peter, is a porous sandstone about 90 
feet thick, saturated with water under sufficient pressure to cause 
it to enter wells freely. It constitutes a stronger water zone than 
any above it and is valuable where large supplies are required. 

Below the Jordan are the shales and limestones of the St. Law- 
rence formation, about 140 feet thick; the Dresbach sandstone, 
about 90 feet thick; and the underlying basal Cambrian shales and 
sandstones, probably reaching 350 feet in thickness. The sandstones 
are saturated with water under considerable pressure and afford 
valuable supplementary supplies to the St. Peter and Jordan wherever 
they are reached by wells. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — As is usual where the surface materials are mainly drift, 
water is easily obtained in the sandy and gravelly layers at a short 
distance below the surface by open or bored wells. However, 
drilled wells are also common because the water in the deeper beds 
of the drift give a more permanent and reliable supply than do the 
shallow beds. In the eastern part of the county many of the upland 
wells pass through the drift, which in many localities does not much 
exceed 100 feet in thickness, and enter the underlying rocks. In the 
valleys driven wells sunk into the alluvium or terrace gravels are the 
most common source of water, but for large supplies, such as the 
public supplies of Faribault and Northfield, deep wells drilled to the 
Jordan or some lower sandstones are necessary. 

Head of the water. — In the middle and lower portions of the drift 
the water always stands under considerable head, but no flowing 
wells from the drift have been reported in this county. In the 
Paleozoic sandstones, the head of water is a more nearly constant 
factor. Thus at Faribault and Northfield, situated in the Cannon 
River valley, strong flows are obtained, the water rising 10 or 20 
feet above the surface, but on the uplands the Paleozoic sandstones 
will not give rise to flows. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Faribault. — The city of Faribault has a system of water supply 
derived from two deep wells, which tap the Jordan and Dresbach 



328 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OP SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



sandstones. The section of the deeper of the two is approximately 
as follows : 

Section of public well at Faribault. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



St. Peter sandstone, in part 

Shakopee dolomite, New Richmond sandstone, and Oneota dolomite (estimated) 

Jordan sandstone (estimated) 

St. Lawrence formation (shales) (estimated) 

Dresbach sandstone and underlying shale (entered) 



225 
355 



Feet. 

75 

340 

420 

645 

1,000 



Several other wells in the city have been sunk to the deep-water 
zones; for instance, the one at the Consolidated Gas and Electric 
Light Company's plant and the one at the school for the deaf and 
dumb. In the bottom of the valley the water rises approximately 
to the surface. A number of analyses of water from various depths 
are given in the accompanying table (p. 329). 

Northfield. — The city of Northfield has a public supply drawn 
from an artesian well sunk in 1894. This well was originally 647 
feet deep, but in order to obtain water of less hardness it was plugged 
at a depth of 300 feet, and the supply now comes from the Jordan 
sandstone. The water will rise 20 feet above the surface and the 
flow from an 8-inch casing is reported to be 1,000 gallons a minute. 
The section of the well is as follows : 

Section of public well at Northfield. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Shakopee, New Richmond, and Oneota 

Jordan (white sandstone) 

St. Lawrence (blue shale) 

Sandstone (Dresbach ?) 

Shale >- . - 

Sandstone 

Shale 

Sandstone 

Limestone 



Feet. 
265 
50 
225 
20 
3 
15 
9 
35 
25 



Feet. 
265 
315 
540 
560 
563 
578 
587 
622 
647 



The water from several water-bearing beds penetrated in this well 
was examined by the Minnesota state board of health, with the follow- 
ing results: 

Analyses of water from the Northfield city well. 
[Parts per million. Authority, C. F. Loweth, civil engineer.] 



Depth. 


Residue. 


Chlo- 
rine. 


Hardness. 


Vola- 
tile. 


Fixed. 


Total. 


Tem- 
porary. 


Perma- 
nent. 


Total. 


Feel. 

82 

500 

647 


51 
85 
15 


320 
295 
435 


371 
380 
450 


4.69 
2.85 
j. 75 


72 

82 

294 


148 
158 
146 


220 
240 
440 



RICE COUNTY. 



329 



Lonsdale. — The village of Lonsdale has a public water supply, 
which, however, is not extensively used by the people, nearly all of 
whom have private wells. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

When large supplies are required drilling should be continued to 
one of the Paleozoic sandstones that underlie the county and contain 
large stores of water, which they yield generously. For farm and 
domestic purposes it is generally possible to obtain, from shallower 
sources and at less expense, supplies which are adequate and, more- 
over, occcur under better head than those from the deep zones. On the 
uplands deep drilling should not be undertaken for the purpose of 
obtaining flowing wells. 

Mineral analyses of -water in Rice County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Glacial drift. 



Depth feet.. 12 and 30 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 



30 



Iron (Fe). 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K). 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOi) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



9.2 
73 



21 

13 

E29 

25 

5. 

309 



1.0 

81 

26 

10 

350 

38 

3.8 

334 



70 

"i'3 



ISO 



226 
37 
7.9 
352 



205 
94 
52 
502 
169 
164 
1,174 



130 
45 



40 

61 
569 



43 

41 

594 



42 
23 
573 



44 

482 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si 2 ) 

Iron(Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K). . 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



New Richmond 


sandstone. 


9. 


10. 


11. 


322 


76 


227 


20 




18 


6.5. 


2.7 


1.9 


103 


91 


87 


41 


31 


30 


42 


13 


1.9 


543 


4<9 


410 


24 


14 


16 


2.2 


1.2 


3 


509 


376 


350 



Jordan 
sand- 
stone. 



Dresbach sandstone. 



12. 


13. 


14. 


15. 


16. 


17 


647 


647 


500 


600 


600 


825 


3.9 


3 
96 


2.6 


21 


12.7 




.2 




97 


92 


97 


96 


91 


34 


32 


30 


32 


29 


29 


5.1 


12 


21 


34 


11 


21 


378 


437 


407 


417 


410 


407 


69 


32 


46 


82 


38 


46 


7.9 


1.2 


10 


18 


3 


11 


352 


391 


402 


490 


392 


400 



18. 



1,000 



1.7 
99 
30 
9.4 
431 
3S 
1.2 
391 



1. Former city well at Faribault. June, 1892. 

2. Well at Faribault. September, 1892. 

3. City weh at Faribault. April, 1899. 

4. Well of Joseph Marek at Lonsdale. December, 1901. 

5. Well of F. Shiask at Lonsdale. Mav, 1902. 

6. Well of T. Wilbey at Lonsdale. December, 1901. 

7. Well of T. Wilbey at Lonsdale. May, 1902. 

8. Well of J. Malscha at Lonsdale. May, 1902. 

9. Village well at Lonsdale. November, 1906. 

10. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Northfield. August, 1890. 

11. Northfield Hemp Company's well at Northfield. November, 1906. 

12. City well at Northfield. January, 1896. 

13. City well at Northfield. July, 1895. 

14. Well at the school for the deaf and dumb at Faribault. April, 1896. 

15. Consolidated Gas and Electric Light Company's well at Faribault. October, 1893. 

16. Well supplying the waterworks at Faribault. September, 1896. 

17. Well at the school for the deaf and dumb at Faribault. 1896. 

18. City well at Faribault. July, 1895. 

Analyses 1 to 8, 10, 13, and 18 were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. 
Paul Railway Company. Analyses 9 and 11 were made by II. S. Spaulding. Analyses 12 and 14 to 17 
were furnished by the Dearborn Drug and Chemical Company, Chicago. 



330 UNDERGBOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 

ROCK COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Rock County is a gently undulating prairie which 
differs from that of the counties farther east in being much better 
drained and in being essentially free from lakes and swamps. The 
north-central section is occupied by a low rock plateau, which is ter- 
minated abruptly on the southeast by a bold quartzite cliff. This 
part of the plateau stands about 175 feet above Rock River and is 
known as "the Mound." The south-facing cliff becomes lower 
toward the west and terminates within a short distance, but that 
facing the east is more persistent and appears in low rocky outcrops 
approximately to the north boundary. 

Rock River, which is the largest stream, flows southward through 
the eastern portion of the county, occupying a wide open valle} T and 
receiving numerous tributaries, which reach it through more narrow 
and gorgelike valleys. The western half is drained b} r several smaller 
streams that flow toward Big Sioux River in South Dakota. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

i 
Description.— -The surface deposits of Rock County consist chiefly 

of glacial drift. The valleys contain extensive alluvial deposits, 

which are in large part of glacial origin. 

In the northwestern and north-central portions of the county the 
drift is thin or entirely absent and the quartzite lies near the surface. 
This area of attenuated drift comprises Rose Dell Township (T.104 N., 
R. 46 W., and T. 104 N., R. 47 W.), all but the eastern margin of 
Denver Township (T. 104 N., R. 45 W.), and all but the southern 
margins of Mound Township (T. 103 N., R. 45 W.) and Spring Water 
Township (T. 103 N., R. 46 W., and T. 103 N., R. 47 W.). (See 
Pis. II and III and also the list of rock wells given below.) Eastward 
and southward from this area the drift thickens rapidly, and within 
a few miles is so deep that the rock is rarely reached in drilling. The 
only rock well reported east of Rock River is on the farm of H. Enge- 
bretson (NE. { sec. 4, T. 103 N., R. 44 W.), where quartzite was struck 
at a depth of 157 feet. Only a few rods south of the Mound (NE. \ sec. 
34, T. 103 N., R. 45 W.) the drift was found to be 200 feet thick, and 
at Luverne deep drilling has been done without encountering rock. 

Yield of water. — At many points where the drift is thin the quantity 
of water that it will furnish is quite inadequate, but where it has a 
considerable thickness copious supplies are drawn from the deeper 
portions. The deposits of sand and gravel in the valleys of Rock 
River and other streams will surrender their water very freely and 
are not easily affected by drought. The public supplies of Edgerton 
and Luverne and of several villages in Iowa located in the Rock River 
valley are obtained from this source. 



EOCK COUNTY. 



331 



Head of the water. — The water from the drift generally rises near the 
surface, and on the relatively low ground surrounding a quartzite 
ridge or plateau conditions are peculiarly favorable for producing 
flows. The rock here affords the intake area through which the water 
is transmitted to the water-bearing beds of the drift, and the imper- 
vious bowlder clay, which laps up over the rock plateau and extends 
as a continuous sheet to an altitude considerably higher than the 
surrounding surface, acts as a confining bed that allows the water to 
accumulate sufficient head to rise nearly or quite to the level of the 
lowland surface (fig. 4). An area in which flows are produced in the 
manner just outlined extends from the low ground east of Hardwick 
southeastward to Rock River (PL IV). Wells near the rock plateau 
have a head that is uncommon for the drift, but the pressure dimin- 
ishes rapidly with increase in distance from the plateau, and no flows 
have been obtained east of the river. The following wells are 
located in this area : 

Flowing ivells near Hardwick. 











Natural 


Owner and location. 


Depth. 


Diam- 
eter. 


Head relative 
to surface. 


flow (gal- 
lons per 
minute). 




Feet. 


Inches. 


Feet. 




E. T. Thorsen, SE. J sec. 25, Denver Township (T. 104 


140 


G 


Several above. 


Several. 


N., R. 45 W). 










O. Halverson, NE. | sec. 36, Denver Township (T. 104 


125 


6 


More than 20 


Many. 


N., R. 45 W). 






above. 




H. R. Halverson, SW. \ sec. 31, Battle Plain Township 


114 


6 


More than 20 


Many. 


(T. 104 N., R. 44 W).a 






above. 




I. Smotel, SE. >- sec. 6, Vienna Township (T. 103 N., R. 


110 




Several above. 


Few. 


44 W.). 










F. C. Mahony, SE. 1 sec. 5, Vienna Township (T. 103 N., 


147 




C) 


C) 


R. 44 W.). 










— Halverson, SE. }- sec. 12, Mound Township (T. 103 N., 


110 




G below 


None. 


R. 45 W.). 










H. Engebretson, NE. \ sec. 4, Vienna Township (T. 103 


180 


6 


6 below 


None. 


N.,R. 44 W.). c 











a The water forced its way up on the outside of the casing and made a large hole. A new well was drilled 
to the same zone. 

b A feeble flow was obtained at this depth, but drilling was continued 4 feet deeper through clay into a 
second seam of sand and gravel, the first seam being cased out. The water then remained 4 feet below the 
surface, and when the casing was drawn .back to the first seam it would not rise again to the surface. 

c This well is in rock below the depth of 157 feet. 

No other flowing wells from the drift were reported, but it is not 
improbable that others could be procured near the margins of the 
rock plateau, for they exist outside of this county in similar locations. 
A well several hundred feet deep was once drilled at Luverne for the 
purpose of getting a flow, but the project ended unsuccessfully. 

Quality of the water. — The water from the surface deposits is all 
hard, but the ordinary glacial drift water is generally more highly 
mineralized than that from the alluvial and outwash deposits. (See 
the analyses given in the accompanying table, p. 336.) 



CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 



Cretaceous rocks are frequently encountered in southwestern 
Minnesota and northwestern Iowa. At Ellsworth, which is less than 



332 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



2 miles east of this county, shale and unconsolidated sandstone 
belonging to this system were found between the depths of 190 and 
280 feet, and it is altogether probable that these deposits extend 
into the eastern and southern portion of this county. The sand- 
stone will usually afford liberal quantities of hard water. (See the 
report on Nobles County.) 

SIOUX QUARTZITE. 

Description. — The Sioux quartzite, or "red rock," is for the most 
part a hard, red, siliceous formation of nearly uniform character and 
great thickness. But though it is generally very firmly cemented 
there are marked differences in the degree of hardness, some layers 
of incoherent sand being encountered. There is also considerable 
variety in the color, which ranges from light pink to dark purple. 
The formation is distinctly stratified, in many places cross-bedded 
and ripple-marked, in general has a gentle dip, and is much broken 
by joints. It has been penetrated only a few hundred feet in this 
county and the bottom has never been reached. 

Throughout the northwestern and north-central parts of the 
county this rock lies near the surface and is exposed in a number of 
localities. Toward the east and south it slopes rapidly downward 
and within a short distance is deeply buried, but it again appears 
near the surface along the southern margin of the county (PI. III). 

The following is a representative list of wells which enter the 
quartzite, together with the depth to rock and the distance it has 
been penetrated, as given by drillers and other persons : 

Table of typical wells in Sioux quartzite of Rock County. 



Owner and location. 



L. II. Gilbertson, E. £ sec. 2(1, T. 104 N., R. 47 W... 

J. Kohler, SE. J sec. 2, T. 104 N., R. 47 W 

Aug. Beyer, S. 4 sec. 21, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

E. lleckman, NE. ]- sec. 21, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

C and O. Houg, N. I sec. 22, T. 104 N., R. 46 W.. .. 
C. and O. Houg, N. \ sec. 22, T. 104 N., R. 46 W.. . . 

J. J. Houg, NE. J- sec. 15, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

G. C. Huntington, NW. \ sec. 2, T. 104 N., R. 46 W . 

F. A. Hyke, SE. \ sec. 22, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

H. Larson, SE. J sec. 3, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

F. Seeman, SE. i sec. 11, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

K. K. Steen, NW. \ sec. 14, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

W. E. Stork, NE. J sec. 4, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

G. W. Vickerman, SE. \ sec. 20, T. 104 N., R. 46 W. 

H. Wiese, NE. } sec. 28, T. 104 N., R. 46 W 

P. E. Brown, SW. J sec. 15, T. 104 N., R. 45 W 

L. M . Grandy, SE. J sec. 14, T. 104 N., R. 45 W 

Hardwick citv well 

Henry Lamp^ N. 4 sec. 1, T. 104 N., R. 45 W 

A. J. Nickev, NE. \ sec. 9, T. 104 N., R. 45 W 

J. Sand, E. 4 sec. 21, T. 104 N., R. 45 W 

H. J. Stammon, NE. \ sec. 17, T. 104 N., R. 45 W . . . 

A. Barck, E. I sec. 22, T. 103 N., R. 45 W 

W. and A. Dysart, E. \ sec. 15, T. 103 N., R. 45 W . 

F. A. Hyke, SE. \ sec. "23, T. 103 N., R. 45 W 

J. E. Mitchell, NE. \ sec. 34, T. 103 N., R. 45 W .... 

W. A. Moore, NW. \ sec. 11, T. 103 N., R. 45 W 

J. Welzenbach, SW. \ sec. 14, T. 103 N., R. 45 W. . . 
H. Engebretson, NE. \ sec. 4, T. 103 N., R. 44 W . . . 



Depth 
to Sioux 
quartzite. 



Fed. 
105 
106 



70 

is 



200 

60 

18 

157 



Distance 

drilled 

in Sioux 

quartzite. 



Fed. 
55 
45 
158 
14S 
86 
237 
214 
215 
194 
174 
100 



119 

100 
334 
171 
101 
340 

57 
134 
145 
152 
162 
351 

45 



281 

1SL> 

23 



Total 

depth of 

well. 



160 
151 
160 
160 

93 
243 
234 
300 
200 
180 
160 
337 
137 
108 
335 
223 
168 
420 
284 
217 
220 
222 
ISO 
358 

45 
200 
341 
200 
ISO 



ROCK COUNTY. 333 

In the area in which the Sioux quartzite is near the surface it lies 
immediately below the glacial drift, but in much of the eastern and 
southern parts where it has not been reached in drilling the Cretaceous 
shales and sandstones probably intervene between it and the drift. 

Yield of water. — In general the quartzite is so firmly cemented that 
there are virtually no pore spaces through which water can be 
transmitted. Nevertheless, the great dearth of water in some locali- 
ties forced the experiment of drilling into this rock, and in almost all 
the wells it yielded some water; it is now depended on as a reliable 
source of supply. The water percolates through the formation in 
two ways — (1) through the " crevices," that is, the system of joints 
into which the rock is broken, and (2) through the less firmly cemented 
portions. Occasionally a well will find a large " crevice" or very 
porous layer that will deliver generous quantities of water, but more 
commonly the "crevices" are small and the beds are but slightly 
pervious, so that only minute amounts of water are given up, and it 
is only by continued drilling, bringing the well in contact with many 
of these water-bearing elements, that an adequate supply is obtained. 
However, the yield generally increases with the depth in more than a 
direct ratio, and therefore doubling the depth does not merely double 
the supply but may augment it many fold. There seem to be two 
reasons for this — (1) the pressure with which the water enters the 
well increases with the depth, and (2) the water-bearing layers appar- 
ently are more abundant and more porous at lower levels. On the 
other hand, the fissures are perhaps less abundant and open at rather 
great depths than near the surface, but the rock has such great 
strength that this counteracting factor is not important for zones 
thus far reached in drilling. 

In putting down farm wells it is customary to guarantee only 100 
gallons an hour, though many wells will furnish much more. The 
village well at Hardwick, which is 420 feet deep and penetrates the 
rock for a distance of 340 feet, has been pumped for ten hours con- 
tinuously at the rate of 25 gallons a minute. The average depth of 
the farm wells is considerably less, as is shown by the list given 
above, and their average yield is accordingly less. 

Head of the water. — There is a flowing well on the low ground near 
the junction of Pipestone and Split Rock creeks (E. J sec. 26, T. 104 N., 
R. 47 W.). It has a depth of 160 feet, of which 55 feet is in rock, 
and its action is perhaps similar in principle to that of the flowing 
wells from the glacial drift described above. In general, flows can 
not be obtained from the quartzite. The height at which the water 
stands varies, depending on the topography and other factors. 

Quality of the water. — The quartzite itself contributes very little 
mineral matter, and where it is at or near the surface the rain may 
enter it without becoming mineralized and may remain soft and 



334 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

almost free from dissolved solids. But in most localities the quartzite 
is covered with a mantle of drift, and as the drift contains much 
soluble matter the water is liable to be highly charged by the time 
it reaches the rock. Hence the quartzite water varies widely in its 
mineral content; but on an average it is softer and otherwise less 
mineralized than that from the drift, though the substances which it 
contains are the same and generally occur in approximately the same 
relative proportions. It is, however, characteristic of much of the 
quartzite water to have a small content of iron, perhaps chiefly 
because much of the water reaches the rock directly from the oxidized 
zone of the drift and so contains free oxygen, which keeps the iron 
out of solution but does not interfere with the other dissolved con- 
stituents. (See the analysis in the accompanying table, p. 336.) No. 3 
is remarkably free from dissolved matter of any kind. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Luverne. — The city of Luverne lies west of Rock River on a terrace 
about 25 feet above the level of the flood plain. Both terrace and 
flood plain are composed of alluvial sand and gravel saturated with 
water. The public supply is taken from two wells, each 19 feet deep, 
one 20 and the other 13 feet in diameter. They are located on the 
flood plain about 200 feet from the river. In July, 1907, the ground- 
water level was 10 feet below the surface, and pumping at the rate of 
750 gallons a minute from the two wells lowered this level only about 
3 feet. In dry years the supply is less copious. The water is only 
moderately hard, as is shown by the analysis given in the table 
(p. 336). It is used by most of the people, and approximately 100,000 
gallons is consumed daily. Most of the private wells, though 
usually bored or dug only a short distance into the alluvium, furnish 
water freely. 

Hardwick. — In some parts of Hard wick village the quartzite out- 
crops and in others the drift is 100 feet thick, the rock surface being 
very irregular. The public waterworks is supplied by a 6-inch well 
420 feet deep, all but SO feet of this depth being in rock. The water 
rises within 36 feet of the surface. The test of this well has been 
mentioned above (p. 333). The analysis in the table (p. 336) shows 
that the water is only moderately hard. There is no system of mams 
and little use is made of the supply except in dry years, when many 
of the shallow private drift wells fail. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

In the area of attenuated drift the inexpensive but unreliable 
shallow wells have gradually been replaced by the much more costly 
but also more satisfactory rock wells, until now there are scores of 
the latter and more are being sunk each year. At first drilling in the 



EOCK COUNTY. 335 

quartzite presented serious difficulties, but 'by patience and skill 
these have now been almost entirely overcome, so that though the 
drilling of a rock well is still a slow and expensive process it is no 
longer an uncertain project. The special difficulties are discussed 
under the heading " Problems relating to wells" (pp. 87-88). The 
original cost of a rock well is relatively great, but such a well when 
once drilled will last an indefinite time without further expense, as 
there is no screen to become corroded. As the supply is generally 
nearly constant, the farmers content themselves with a small yield 
rather than go to the additional expense of drilling deeper. One 
hundred gallons an hour, which is the yield guaranteed by some 
drillers, appears very small, but it is enough to keep a windmill work- 
ing slowly and to supply amply the consumption on an ordinary 
farm. 

In the larger area where the quartzite is deeply buried the farm 
supply is derived from the glacial drift, or, locally, from the alluvial 
and outwash deposits. The wells in the drift are mostly of the 
shallow bored type, but there are also a few drilled wells. In the 
alluvial and outwash deposits satisfactory supplies are obtained from 
driven wells. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The following formations will yield water: (1) Alluvial and out- 
wash deposits, (2) glacial drift (proper), (3) Cretaceous sandstone, and 
(4) Sioux quartzite ("red rock"). 

The first are available chiefly in the wide valley of Rock River, 
where they furnish large quantities of water at shallow depths. 
The second constitutes the most valuable source throughout the 
eastern and southern parts of the county, where it has considerable 
thickness and affords large supplies. The third is believed to lie at 
a depth of several hundred feet in some localities in the eastern 
and southern parts of the county and, though it has not yet been 
utilized, would here probably yield liberally. The fourth contains 
a relatively small store of water, but if penetrated several hundred 
feet will generally furnish enough not only for farm purposes but also 
for ordinary industrial and public supplies. Where other formations 
are wanting it is invaluable. 

The water from the alluvial and outwash deposits is only moder- 
ately hard, and that from the quartzite varies, though it is com- 
monly rather soft; but the water from the drift is invariably hard, 
and the Cretaceous water is liable to be still less satisfactory. 

There is no water-bearing formation below the quartzite, and 
there is no prospect of obtaining either flowing wells or soft water 
by deep drilling. It is, of course, advisable to sink to a depth of 
several hundred feet either in the drift or in the quartzite if this is 
necessary to acquire an adequate supply. 



336 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



Mineral analyses of water in Rock- County. 
[Analyses in puns per million.] 



Silriace de- 
posits. 



Allu- 
vium. 



Glacial 
drift. 



Sioux quartsite. 



Depth feet - - 

Diameter of well inches. . 

Silica (SiOg) 

Iron (Ftt) 



Large. 
16 



Iron and aluminum oxides (FeaOs+AlaOs). 

Calcium (Cal 

Magnesium (Mg) 

dd and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (COjJ 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCOs) 

Sulphate radicle (SO-0 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nit rate radicle ^ X Oj) 

Total solids 



350 

50 
5 



399 



GO 

in 

15a 
42 

.0 
681 
126 

11 
.0 



58 
24 

5 

106' 



420 

ti 

12 

.;; 
., .. 

si" 

36 



.0 



1. City wells at Luverne. 

2. Well at the rear of E. Olson's blacksmith shop at Hardwick. Julv 30, UM.iT. 

3. Spring on the farm of L. MePermott. SW. J sec. 25, T. 103 X.. R. 4"> W. Julv 29, 1907. 

4. Village well at Hardwick. August 1. 1907. 

Analyses 2, 3. and 4 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. YV hit taker, chemist 
Minnesota state board of health. Analysis 1 was furnished by Mr. C. X. Phiibrick, chief engineer City 
light and waterworks. Luverne. The analyst and date are not given. 

SCOTT COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 

SUKFACE FEATURES. 

Scott County is topographically the lowest county south of Min- 
nesota River. It has a maximum altitude of a little over 1.100 feet 
on Mount Herber and at one or two other points in the southern 
part, and a minimum of 090 feet on the flood plain of the Minnesota, 
its average altitude being- about 925 feet. The morainal accumula- 
tions in the eastern half of the county, though of no great height, are 
marked by hills of very irregular outline, interspersed with which are 
numerous depressions occupied by marshes and lakes. In the west- 
ern half of the county the surface is gently rolling, or even fiat, and 
is characteristic of the type of plateau which southeastern Minnesota 
represents. Its surface is broken in places by streams flowing in 
valleys, some of which are 150 feet or more in depth. On the north- 
west is the valley of the Minnesota, which lies 200 to 225 feet below 
the neighboring uplands and has broad, swampy, alluvial bottoms 1 
to 3 miles in width. Bordering the alluvium, and lying 25 to 50 feet 
above it. are a number of low rock terraces, the principal examples 
of which are found near Shakopee, Merriam Junction, and Jordan. 
Still higher, at an elevation of 100 to 150 feet above the river, are 
a number of broad terraces known locally as •"prairies" — the Shak- 
opee, Belle Plaine, and Sand prairies near Jordan being the most 



SCOTT COUNTY. 337 

important. A number of ancient stream channels lead eastward into 
Cannon River. 

SURFACE DK POSITS. 

The glacial drift has a thickness of over 200 feet along the river, 
but is thinner inland, where the rock rises in places nearly to the 
surface, as along the eastern edge of the county. The gravelly 
portions commonly carry an abundant store of water, which is avail- 
able to wells of moderate depth. Usually the supplies are sufficient 
for small industries, as well as for farm and domestic uses, but are 
not commonly adequate where much water is required. 

Alluvium is found principally along Minnesota River, but minor 
amounts are found along other streams. The boring at Belle Plaine 
revealed 200 feet of sands and gravels, but it is doubtful whether 
these consist entirely of alluvium. Rock shows through the deposits 
at a number of places, and it is probable that the average thickness 
of the alluvium is not more than 50 feet. It contains considerable 
amounts of water, but owing to the presence of silt its supplies are 
given up rather slowly. 

The terrace sands and gravels occur at a number of points along 
the Minnesota, especially south of Shakopee and southeast of Belle 
Plaine. They represent the deposits of glacial streams, their occur- 
rence at the present time as terraces being due to more recent 
erosion. The materials generally consist of clean sands and gravels, 
having a thickness of 30 to 40 feet and resting on benches cut in the 
underlying drift or in the more ancient Paleozoic rocks. They 
readily absorb the rain, but the water is quickly lost by drainage 
into the adjoining valleys, at least near the edges of the terraces. 
Farther back, and where there are depressions in the underlying 
drift surfaces, considerable water remains. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Platteville limestone occurs beneath the drift in the highest 
lands in the eastern and southeastern parts of the county, but its 
total thickness is probably not more than 20 feet. It is a protecting 
cap to the underlying St. Peter sandstone. 

The St. Peter sandstone, which probably exceeds 110 feet in thick- 
ness, is exposed at the surface nowhere within the county. It covers 
a broad area, however, beneath the drift and underlies the Platte- 
ville along the eastern border, stretching thence westward into the 
central part of the county. Where it lies immediately under the 
drift it is commonly reported as a loose sand rather than as a sand- 
stone; indeed many drillers fail to distinguish it from the glaciul drift. 
It appears to hold much more water than the drift and affords ample 
60920°— wsp 256—11 22 



338 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

supplies for most purposes. However, as the water is not under mueh 
pressure it does not enter the wells freely enough to furnish large 
supplies. 

The Prairie du Chien group is here represented by 150 feet of buff 
magnesian limestone, occasionally mottled with red and yellow, 
separated in the upper part by about 5 feet of sandstone, which is 
believed to represent the New Richmond sandstone. It outcrops 
along Minnesota River near the village of Shakopee, from which the 
upper dolomite derives its name. The rocks as a whole are character- 
ized by numerous joints, bedding planes, and solution passages which 
may contain water. Good supplies are generally obtained whenever 
it is possible to sink wells to the level of the adjoining river, which 
controls the water level in the limestone along its borders. Much of 
the water of the deep upland wells probably conies from the sandy bed, 
which is regarded as the equivalent of the New Richmond sandstone 
of other counties. 

The Jordan sandstone is about 1 25 feet thick. It is exposed at Jor- 
dan and along Minnesota River to the north. Southward it bends 
away from the river, leaving the limestone of the St. Lawrence forma- 
tion outcropping in the valley, but it returns again to the valley 
near the southwestern corner of the county. The formation is a 
magnificent water-bearing bed, furnishing, even along its outcrop, 
abundant supplies for ordinary domestic, farm, and industrial pur- 
poses, though the water rises but little. Under the uplands it consti- 
tutes an important source of supply to the deeper wells. 

The St. Lawrence formation here consists of a red or yellow shaly 
dolomite, having a total thickness of about ] 50 feet and outcropping 
along the eastern bank of Minnesota River. It carries very little 
water, but gives rise to a few springs of small size. Its principal 
value results from the fact that it serves as a cap to the underlying 
Dresbach sandstone, confining the water of the latter under consider- 
able artesian pressure. 

Beneath the St. Lawrence formation, at a depth of about 200 feet 
below tfye river in the southwestern part of the county, occurs the 
Dresbach sandstone, a water-bearing bed of the best character. 
Owing to the greater pressure upon its water, incident to its protected 
situation, it affords larger supplies and better head along the Minne- 
sota than does the Jordan. In the valley of the Minnesota it gives 
rise to flows. Farther back, beneath the uplands, the advantage of 
the Dresbach over the Jordan is not great. Below the Dresbach 
occurs a considerable thickness of Cambrian shales, underlain by 
sandstones whose characters and water supplies are very similar to 
those of the Dresbach sandstone. Their yield, however, is not 
materially greater than that of the Dresbach sandstone, and there is 
therefore generally no object in sinking wells to them. 



SCOTT COUNTY. 339 

Many years ago the discovery of a slightly saline spring led to the 
drilling of a deep well at Belle Plaine for the purpose of prospecting 
for brine. The record of this well, together with the hypothetical 
correlation of the strata, is given below. 

Record of the Belle Plaine salt well. a 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Alluvium and drift ( ?) 

Sandstone [basal Cambrian] 

Red ocherous sand and shale 

Purple shale mottled with white 

Red to greenish shale as above 

Red shale or marl 

Purple and mottled shale '. 

Red quartzite and shale 

Ocherous shale 

Dark-brown micaceous quartzite 

Dark greenish brown micaceous quartzite 

[Red clastic series:] 

Dark reddish brown quartzite and greenish shale. 

Iron-stained light green 

Red sandy shale 

Red, brown, and green shale 

Brown, red, and green shale 

[Sioux quartzite]: 

Shale and quartzite (entered) 



Feet. 

216 

16 

10 

40 

108 

6 

24 

20 

10 

10 

10 

50 
10 
20 
40 
24 



Feet. 
216 
232 
242 
282 
390 
396 
420 
440 
450 
460 
470 

520 
530 
550 
590 
614 

710 



a Upham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, pp. 117-119. 

The red clastic series, which is present everywhere in southeastern 
Minnesota, appears here to be 240 feet thick. The above section is 
significant in 'apparently showing the absence of the water-bearing 
Dresbach sandstone, which furnishes such desirable supplies at 
Chaska, Merriam Junction, and Henderson. The "Sandstone [basal 
Cambrian] " is apparently a remnant of this formation. Compare 
the Jordan well only 7 ov 8 miles away. (See p. 340.) 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — Open wells obtaining supplies from sandy or gravelly layers 
only 15 or 20 feet below the surface were formerly the principal 
source of supply. They were found, however, to fail in times of 
drought, and drilled wells going to depths of 50 to 150 feet have been 
generally substituted, the supplies being obtained from sand or 
gravel beds in the drift. The deeper water is not only more ample, 
but, being beyond the reach of pollution, is much safer than that from 
the old shallow wells. Wells drilled to the rock are not common on 
the uplands, but nearly every township has one or more. In the 
valleys driven or drilled wells sunk in the alluvium or underlyimg 
drift are common where these deposits have considerable thick- 
ness, but where the rocks are near the surface, as at Shakopee, 
Jordan, etc., the wells nearly all enter the rock, obtaining water from 
the immediately underlying formation at depths of 30 to 50 feet or 
deeper. The supplies from the alluvium and surface rocks are rather 
meager. Hence where large supplies are required it is necessary to 
sink to the Dresbach or lower sandstones. 



340 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

Head of the water. — Owing to the relief and the varied sources of 
supply, the range in the head of water relative to the surface is consid- 
erable. In the shallow wells ending in the upper part of the drift the 
water usually stands near the surface, but where the deeper drift is 
drawn upon the head is generally lower. Along the edge of the bluff 
bordering the Minnesota Valley it is not uncommon to have to lift the 
water from depths of 50 to 100 feet, but on the flood plain of the 
Minnesota the wells penetrating the Dresbach and lower sandstones 
overflow at the surface and may have a head of 25 to 50 feet above the 
river level. 

Springs. — Springs are common at the base of bluffs along the 
valleys of the Minnesota and its tributaries, and afford domestic and 
stock supplies for many farms. Most of them are small, but where 
the limestone is present to collect the water flows of considerable 
volume sometimes occur. The so-called Jordan mineral springs, 
owned by O. Rosendahl, have in recent years attracted considerable 
attention. They issue from the lower part of the bluff on the south 
side of the Minnesota Valley. The water is charged with sulphureted 
hydrogen and is reputed to have medicinal value. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

New Prague. — The city of New Prague has a public supply which 
is used by about three-fourths of the inhabitants. The water is 
obtained from an 8-inch well that is 289 feet deep. 

Belle Plaine. — A 'system of public waterworks has recently been 
installed in this city. The supply is taken from a well 8 inches in 
diameter and 213 feet deep. The underground conditions in this 
vicinity have already been discussed. 

Shakopee. — The city of Shakopee has no public supply, but is pro- 
vided with an engine and hose, the water being pumped from the 
river in case of fire. 

Jordan. — As the city of Jordan has no system of waterworks, all 
the people depend on private supplies, derived chiefly from water- 
bearing sand near the surface. The Minneapolis and St. Louis Rail- 
road well is supplied from the Dresbach sandstone, which was pene- 
trated at a depth of 210 feet. The water in this well rises within 4 
feet of the surface, and the well has been tested at 125 gallons a minute. 
The section is given below: 

Well section at Jordan. 
[Authority, H. G. Kelley, chief engineer.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Alluvium 

Shale and dolomite (St. Lawrence). 

Sandstone (Dresbach) 

Shale 



Feet. 

112 

98 

75 

2 



Feet. 
112 
210 
285 
287 



SIBLEY COUNTY. 



341 



Merriam Junction. — The following is the section of the Chicago, 
St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway well at Merriam Junction. 
An analysis of the water is given in the table below. 

Well section at Merriam Junction. 
[Authority, J. F. McCarthy, driller.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Alluvium 

Hard, crystalline dolomite (St. Lawrence) : 

Soft, shaly dolomite (St. Lawrence) 

Sandstone (Dresbach and possibly in part the red clastic series) (entered) 



Feet. 

130 
85 
95 

351 



Feet. 
130 
215 
310 
661 



SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The beds of sand and gravel that are generally encountered on the 
uplands within 200 feet of the surface almost invariably yield sup- 
plies adequate for ordinary purposes, but still larger supplies can be 
obtained from the several sandstone formations at greater depths. < 
The water will rise nearer to the upland surface from the shallow 
zones than from the deeper one, but in the valley generous flows can 
usually be obtained from the deep sandstones, though the section of 
the so-called salt well at Belle Plaine gives a warning that these 
sandstones may locally vary in their water-carrying capacity. After 
the red clastic series is encountered the prospects of obtaining a 
satisfactory supply are poor. 

Mineral analyses of water in Scott County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



18 

18 

79 

22 

1.3 

320 

20 

2.2 

338 



SO 

20 
Trace. 
72 
25 
3.9 
344 
6 

3.6 
291+ 



/66and\ 

\ 106 

4. 

24 

139 

57 

230 

390 

95 

471 

1,212 



45 

23 
2.9 
74 
25 
1.3 
333 
14 
2.2 
307 



18 


85 


20 


16 


4.9 




72 


193 


29 


102 


1.8 


39 


370 


962 




168 



, 2.8 
'314 



16 
1,025 



68 

20 

2.1 

92 

31 

14 

384 

65 

3.6 

420 



12 
11 
97 
38 

58 

413 

92 

04 

570 



1. Spring at Savage. 

2. Well of Christopher Schmidt at Belle Plaine. April, 1897. 

3. Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway well at Belle Plaine. June, 1900. 

4. Gran Milling Company well at Belle Plaine. March, 1906. 

5. Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway well at Savage. June, 1901. 

6. Well at Jacob Ries's Bottling Works at Shakopee. June, 1897. 

7. Well of George A. Cole at Jordan. June, 1897. 

8. Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway well at Merriam Junction. 

Analyses 3, 4, 5, and 8 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
Company. Analyses 2 and 7 were furnished by Edgar & Mariner. Analysis was furnished by Jacob 
Ries. 

SIBLEY COUNTY. 



By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 



Sibley County has an average elevation of about 1,000 feet above 
sea level, or fully 200 feet above the broad valley of Minnesota River, 



342 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

which borders it on the east. Though its surface is generally only 
gently undulating, locally it is rolling, and the depressions are occu- 
pied by lakes. However, no prominent moraines are found in the 
county. Its southern and eastern portions are drained by Rush River 
and other tributaries of the Minnesota, whose valleys near their mouths 
attain a depth of 150 to 200 feet. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Crystalline rocks are found at a few points in the valley of the 
Minnesota, but the rest of the county is covered by a thick mantle of 
surface deposits through which very few wells penetrate. 

Alluvium is found in the valleys of Minnesota River and its largest 
tributaries. Its thickness varies, probably averaging less than 50 feet. 
The depth to which wells are sunk at points along the valley before 
reaching rock indicate the presence of a deep preglacial channel, 
which is seemingly west of the present stream where it borders Carver 
County and mainly east of it along Sibley County. 

The alluvium contains moderate quantities of water, but owing 
to the presence of considerable amounts of silt it is not given up as 
in coarser deposits. Supplies sufficient for ordinary purposes may 
be secured, but volumes adequate for large industries or public sup- 
plies are not to be expected. 

Along the Minnesota at heights of 75 to 150 feet above the stream 
there is a series of terraces, cut principally into the bowlder clay of 
the glacial drift. The lower terraces are covered by only a thin 
layer of ancient alluvium, but on the higher ones this sand and gravel 
deposit is at many points 20 to 30 feet thick. The terrace deposits 
are found chiefly near the northeastern and southeastern corners 
of the county in tracts about one-fourth mile wide. They contain 
water in moderate amounts except near the outer edge of the ter- 
races, from which it is drained into the adjacent valleys. 

Except for the few outcrops near the Minnesota, Sibley County is 
wholly covered by drift. From exposures along the valley and the 
sections revealed by wells, its thickness in the eastern part of the 
county is known to be about 250 feet. Elsewhere the thickness is 
even greater, as shown by well sections, reaching 397 feet near the 
northeastern corner of the county, 275 feet at Gibbon, and 400 feet 
at Winthrop. (See the sections given below.) 

The drift as a whole consists mainly of bowlder clay, some of the 
wells reporting this material (with almost no sand or gravel seams) 
for the entire depth to the rock. Below the surface soil is found 
the characteristic yellow oxidized clay to a depth of 12 or 15 feet, 
and below this, in most localities, a great thickness of grayish blue 
clay derived largely from Cretaceous material brought in from the 
northwest, and including some carbonized wood or lignite. At one 



SIBLEY COUNTY. 343 

point very near the northeastern corner of the county there was 
found a small amount of red clay, representing material brought 
from the northeast. 

Until the last few years the water supplies throughout Sibley 
County have been obtained mainly from shallow surface wells, but 
in recent years many deep wells have been bored, the present number 
probably being not less than 200. It has been found, however, that, 
notwithstanding the great thickness of the drift, sandy or gravelly 
layers are relatively uncommon, and it is often necessary to drill 
several hundred feet in search of water supplies. In some wells no 
water zones are encountered in the drift, but a thin porous stratum 
is generally found at the contact of the drift with the underlying rock. 
By far the greater number of wells can obtain supplies sufficient for 
domestic, farm, and industrial purposes, and even for public supplies, 
without penetrating the rock. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

The Jordan sandstone probably occurs in the southeastern extrem- 
ity of the county but is absent elsewhere. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of thin layers of pink mag- 
nesian limestone alternating with beds of shale that are in many parts 
characterized by a green color. It outcrops at a number of points 
in the Minnesota Valley north of Henderson and underlies a belt 
several miles wide parallel to the river. It gives rise, along the 
stream mentioned, to a large number of springs, many of which are 
used in the rapidly developing dairy industry. Six streams fed by 
springs are reported in T. 113 N., R. 26 W., and one in sec. 2, T. 112 N., 
R. 26 W. Some of the springs are said to form streams large enough 
to furnish water power. Beneath the uplands the St. Lawrence, 
though probably containing moderate amounts of water in its 
bedding planes, joints, etc., is not likely to yield more than the over- 
lying drift and is not to be considered as a promising source of 
supply. 

The Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales have not been 
observed in Sibley County, but were encountered below the St. Law- 
rence formation in the deep well at Henderson and probably lie 
immediately beneath the drift in the central part of the county. The 
successive beds of sandstones, which are separated by shale, are 
good water bearers and will yield abundant supplies to deep wells 
both in the valleys and uplands, but the water will rise to the 
surface in the Minnesota Valley only. 

Outcrops along Minnesota River make it clear that 50 feet or more 
of red conglomerate and at least 250 feet of red or gray quartzite 
intervene between the rocks just described and the granite. They 
are of little or no value as a source of water supply. 



344 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



The western part of the county is underlain by granitic rocks 
which yield no water except near the top, where they may be fissured 
or decayed. 

To supplement the above statements in regard to the character and 
distribution of the formations found in this count}^ the following 
logs of deep wells with their hypothetical interpretations are here 

given : 

Section at Henderson. 

[City well sunk in 1890. Altitude of the surface is about 7.50 feet above sea level. Authority, H. P. Pfeirler.] 



Alluvium: Gravel 

Glacial drift : Sand, gravel, and bowlders 
St. Lawrence formation: 

Gray and yellow limestone 

Pink limestone 

Green clay and limestone 

White water-bearing sand 

Red limestone 

Gray limestones and sandstones 

Red limestone 

White sandstone 

Coarse white sand 

Coarse yellow sand 

Green sandstone and limestone 

Coarse sandstone 

Fine-grained yellow sandstone 



Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


20 


20 


25 


45 


10 


55 


9 


64 


250 


314 


13 


327 


117 


444 


30 


474 


10 


484 


35 


519 


55 


574 


35 


609 


15 


624 


20 


644 


62 


706 



Section at Green Isle. 

[Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad well. Authority, chief engineer Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad 

Company.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Artificial filling 

Glacial drift: 

Blue clay 

Sand and gravel (water) 

Dresbach sandstone (?) and underlying beds 

Soft white sandstone (water) 

Red clay or shale 

Blue shale 

Hard white sandstone 



Feet. 



Feet. 



77 


180 


24 


204 


25 


229 


15 


244 


15 


259 


87 


346 



Section at Winthro'p. 

[Well drilled for the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad Company in 1903. The surface altitude is about 
1,018 feet above sea level. Authority, H. G. Kelly, chief engineer Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad 
Company.] 



Clay 

Fine-grained sand (water). 

Clay (glacial) 

Coarse sand 

White sand 

Red shale 

Red shale with white sand 
Granite (entered) 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Feet. 


Feet. 


212 


212 


8 


220 


150 


370 


21 


391 


8 


399 


9 


408 


4 


412 


2 


414 



SIBLEY COUNTY. 



345 



UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Yield of water. — Near the surface the drift contains considerable 
water but the yield is not generally large and the supply is frequently 
affected by drought. The bulk of the drift is relatively barren of 
water-bearing beds, as has already been explained, but at or near the 
base one or more beds usually exist which will yield generously. In 
the eastern portion of the county the rock formations will furnish 
large supplies, but farther west these are absent. The 8-inch city 
artesian well at Henderson is reported to flow 300 gallons a minute; 
the 10-inch railway well at Green Isle has been pumped at the rate 
of 150 gallons a minute; and the 10-inch village well at Winthrop has 
been tested at the rate of 75 gallons a minute. 

Head of the water. — On the uplands flowing wells can not be obtained 
from the deeper beds, but in the Minnesota Valley the water from the 
sandstones will generally rise above the surface. The following table 
gives the head of the water from the deeper drift and sandstone zones 
at various localities in this county or adjacent to it: 

Depth and altitude of the head of the water at localities in and near Sibley County. 







Distance 








of water 








level 


Head 




Locality. 


above 


above 






( + )or 


sea level. 






bek>w(— ) 








surface. 








Feet. 


Feet. 






- 10 


1,055 




- 13 


1,045 




- 24 


995 




- 90 


905 




- 90 


909 




— 80 


960 




— 80 
—121 


964 




897 




+ 60 
+ 18 


810 




778 







WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Winthrop. — The village of Winthrop has a system of public water- 
works supplied from a 10-inch well which is 239 feet deep. As is 
shown by the stratigraphic section of this well given on page 344, the 
Archean granite was struck 412 feet below the surface. Most of the 
inhabitants use water from private wells. 

Henderson. — The section and other data in regard to the city well at 
Henderson are given on pages 343-344. The system of waterworks 
is used chiefly for fire protection, the domestic supply being taken 
principally from other wells. 

Gibbon. — The village of Gibbon is provided with a system of water- 
works which draws from a well 210 feet deep, but private wells are 
relied on for domestic supplies. 



346 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SUMMARY. 

At nearly all points in this county beds of sand or sandstone which 
will yield adequate supplies occur within several hundred feet of the 
surface. The water from these depths will generally be found to be 
more satisfactory for domestic and boiler uses than that from shallow 
sources. It is under sufficient pressure to give rise to flows in the 
Minnesota Valley, but will everywhere stand below the upland level. 
In the western part of the county granitic rock will be encountered 
at depths of several hundred feet. It should not be penetrated, as it 
is not water-bearing. 

STEELE COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The upland surface of Steele County, which stands between 1,100 
and 1,200 feet above sea level, is interrupted only by two morainal 
belts and by the shallow valleys of Straight River and its tributaries. 
Of the morainal belts the more eastern is the narrower, ranging from 
one-half mile to 5 miles in width and generally standing not more 
than 100 feet above the surrounding plateau surface. It crosses the 
county from north to south a little west of its eastern border and is 
characterized by groups of irregular hills and basins. The other belt, 
which is somewhat lower, is seen along the western edge of the county, 
south of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, where a width of 
about 4 miles falls within the county with an equal or greater width 
in Waseca County to the west. The intermediate area, though 
slightly undulating, is relatively flat and is characterized in places 
by lakes and swampy tracts of considerable size, some of which have 
been artificially drained. Straight River rises in the southern part 
of the count) 7 and flows northward between the moraines, eventually 
joining Cannon River. Throughout most of its course its valley is 
shallow, but near the border of Rice County the valley deepens to 
about 100 feet. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The glacial drift, which everywhere mantles the surface, varies in 
depth from a few feet in the valle}" of Straight River to 50 or 100 feet 
along its edges, 100 to 150 feet in the uplands of the central part of 
the county, and 150 to 200 feet in the morainal areas of the eastern 
and western parts of the county. 

Near Deerfield a number of wells have encountered a bluish-black 
clay underlain by gravel and sand and some lignite, the material 
resembling the deposits which have been referred to the Cretaceous 



STEELE COUNTY. 



347 



in other counties in southeastern Minnesota.® While there is no 
definite evidence as to the age of these beds, a late suggestion by 
Leverett and Sardeson is that they belong to a pre-Kansan deposit 
of the glacial drift. Practically no water occurs in the clays, but 
the sands beneath generally contain considerable amounts. 



PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Devonian sandstone is a fine-grained gray to white sandstone 
with a few shaly limestone layers. It underlies a small area near 
the southeast corner of the county and probably reaches as far 
north as Owatonna, where a sandstone is known to rest upon the 
shaly limestone strata that are regarded as Galena. The formation 
generally yields water in rather large amounts and in some places 
under considerable artesian pressure. 

The Galena limestone, Decorah shale, and Platteville limestone 
doubtless underlie the entire county, and from well records and other 
evidence they appear to have an aggregate thickness of nearly 200 
feet. The uppermost formation is at man}" places broken and 
fissured and contains water under more or less artesian pressure. In 
some wells abundant supplies are obtained, but in others the yield is 
not satisfactory. 

The St. Peter sandstone underlies the Platteville limestone through- 
out the entire county and is reached at 300 feet or more below the 
surface. It generally contains abundant water and yields strong 
supplies. 

Below the St. Peter the following water-bearing beds occur: 

List of water-bearing beds lovjer than the St. Peter sandstone. 





Approxi- 
mate thick- 
ness. 


Approxi- 
mate depth 
below the 
bottom 
of the 
St. Peter. 




Feet. 

10 to 20 
80 
90 

200 


Feet. 

50 




150 




500 




650 







All these formations contain large quantities of water under suffi- 
cient pressure to cause them to enter the wells freely. They may be 
expected to furnish supplementary supplies of importance if the St. 
Peter fails through overdraft or otherwise. 

a Harrington, M. AY., Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 398. 



348 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



The following log of the well drilled for the city of Owatonna in 
1878 gives a section of the strata to the bottom of the St. Peter: 

Well section at Owatonna. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift: 

Gravel and sand 

Blue, stony clay 

Gravel and bowlders with much water 

Devonian(?): 

White quartz sand 

Soft limestone, decayed 

Yellow clay, making the water very yellow 

Hard white sandstone 

Galena, Decorah, and Platteville formations (?): 

Blue compact limestone 

Blue sandstone, " like grindstone grit " 

Blue shale 

Light-gray shale 

Shale, "full of specks of iron pyrites, very hard to drill" 

Blue shale 

Light-gray shale 

Blue clay 

Hard yellow rock 

Blue clay and shale 

Lead-colored clay, making the water dark blue 

Hard yellow rock 

Blue arenaceous shale 

Blue shale 

A cherty layer 

Blue limestone 

St. Peter sandstone: 

White sandstone 

Similar to the last, but very hard; thought to contain iron pyrites 

White sandstone 



Feet. 
20 

14 



Feet. 



•jo 

34 

39 

60 
62 

63 

98 

118 

128 
138 
148 
151 
171 
176 
188 
190 
240 
243 
250 
253 
261 
262 
290 

370 

378 
387 



a TJpham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1SS2, pp. 39S-399. The 
interpretation here given is by C. W. Hall and is somewhat different from that given by Mr. Upham. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — Except along the valley of Straight River the drift is 
everywhere of considerable thickness, and wells sunk to sandy or 
gravelly layers 10 to 40 feet below the surface are common. In 
general the shallow supplies are less satisfactory than the deeper 
ones, and have the disadvantages of being liable to pollution and 
of failing in times of drought. For these reasons many relatively 
deep wells have been drilled. In the valley of Straight River, as at 
Owatonna, some of the wells penetrate to the underlying sandstones. 

Head of the water. — Although Steele County contains some of the 
highest land in the southeastern portion of the State, there are many 
flowing wells within its area. These occur in the shallow valleys 
through the central part of the county and obtain their head from 
the high morainic belts on either side. The area hi which flows can 
be obtained is shown in Plate IV. 



WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Owatonna. — The public supply at Owatonna is taken from five wells 
95 feet deep, and one 6-10 feet deep. Shallow wells are the common 
source for private water supplies, but in recent years drilling has been 



STEELE COUNTY. 



349 



carried in a number of wells to depths of 200 to 250 feet. Several 
flowing wells are reported, ranging in depth to 250 feet. 

Blooming Prairie. — The village of Blooming Prairie has a system of 
public waterworks supplied from a drilled well 245 feet deep, which 
ends in Galena or Platteville limestone. 

EEenddle. — More than one-half of the people of Ellendale depend 
on the public supply which is obtained from a well 212 feet deep. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Adequate supplies can usually be obtained from the glacial drift 
or creviced portions of the Galena limestone, but if a larger yield is 
required than these formations will furnish drilling should be con- 
tinued to the sandstones which everywhere underlie the county and 
which will provide generous and permanent supplies. 

Mineral analyses of water in Steele County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



3. 



5. 


6. 


7. 






28 
17 


19 


18 


56 


42 


123 


15 


15 


48 


12 


16 


35 


277 


248 


593 


3.3 


2 


49 


1.8 


.9 


29 


392 


348 


594 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Xa+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 

Chlorine (CI) 



10 
69 
26 
6.2 
339 
3.9 
6.7 
Total solids I 290 



17 
233 
23 
5.5 



294(?) 



33 

216 

24 

5.8 
391 
Tr. 

1.7 
678 



33 
237 
22 
4.8 

- -^y ■ ' 

2.1 
304(?) 



35 
11 
98 
36 

27 

481 

31 

18 

459 



12. 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) .• 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



28 



29 



102 


71 


32 


31 


16 


16 


399 


396 


61 


11 


20 


19 


429 


426 



127 
40 

21 
356 
233 



592 



122 
39 
37 

353 

219 
19 

609 



122 
38 
34 

350 
238 



605 



103 
34 
13 

375 
88 
20 

453 



132 
42 
27 

452 
128 

42 
608 



640 
16 
96 
35 

5 
467 

2.9 

5.5 



640 
9.9 

97 

26 
8 
496 
6.3 
6.1 



1. Straight River at Owatonna. April, 1889. 

2. Spring at Owatonna. January, 1905. 

3. Spring at Owatonna. January, 1905. 

4. Spring at Owatonna. January, 1905. 

5. Morford Spring at Owatonna." 1875. 

6. Flowing Spring at Owatonna. 1875. 

7. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Owatonna. January, 1889. 

8. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Owatonna. March, 1890. 

9. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Owatonna. August, 1890. 

10. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Owatonna. December, 1899. 

11. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Owatonna. March, 1900. 

12. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Owatonna. April, 1900. 

13. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Owatonna. July, 1900. 

14. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Blooming Prairie. August, 1890. 

15. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Blooming Prairie. December, 1893. 

16. City well at Owatonna. 1890. 

17. City well at Owatonna. 1891. 

Analyses 2, 3, and 4 were made by II. C. Carel, and analyses 5 and 6 by Gustave Bode. Analyses 1 and 

7 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company; analyses 

8 to 17 by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 



350 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SWIFT COUNTY 

By O. E. Meinzer. 

SUE FACE FEATURES. 

Most of Swift County consists of a very gently undulating prairie, 
characterized by marshy areas through which sluggish streams 
meander, but containing few definite drainage channels and few well- 
defined lakes. Near the northeastern and northwestern corners, 
however, the topography is more morainic and there are numerous 
lakes. A small morainic area also occurs in the vicinity of Danvers 
near the center of the county. Two rivers flow southward and empty 
into the Minnesota — the Pomme de Terre in the western and the 
Chippewa in the central part. The valleys of both are small where 
they enter the county, but become wider and deeper as they pro- 
gress. Their few tributaries have not yet dissected the prairie sur- 
face to an important extent. The Minnesota Valley borders the 
county for a few miles on the southwest. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — The surface deposits include ordinary glacial drift, 
glacial outwash materials, and recently deposited alluvium. The 
drift covers the entire county and constitutes by far the greatest 
part of the surface deposits. The materials washed out from the 
ice sheet were in large measure laid down along the principal streams, 
forming extensive sheets of stratified sand and gravel. Alluvial 
deposits made by the streams since the last glacial epoch are of 
trivial importance. 

The thickness of the surface deposits ranges from less than 100 to 
more than 300 feet and averages somewhat more than 200 feet. In 
general it is least in the southwestern part and increases toward the 
northeast. At Appleton underlying formations have been struck at 
a depth of 65 feet, and in the northwestern portion of the county at 
185 to 240 feet, but in the morainic area of the northeast drilling 
has gone to depths of at least 300 feet without reaching the bottom 
of the drift. 

Yield of water. — Wherever the outwash materials are found at the 
surface they provide relatively copious supplies from depths commonly 
ranging between 10 and 40 feet. The sand and gravel deposits inter- 
mingled with the bowlder clay of the glacial drift are generally satu- 
rated with water, and in nearly every locality beds of this type are 
sufficiently thick and coarse to afford supplies adequate for ordinary 
purposes. As a rule the deepest beds yield the most water and are 
least affected by drought. The two city wells at Benson are 6 and 
8 inches in diameter and end in a gravel bed in the drift at a depth 
of 167 feet. Pumping at the rate of 160 gallons a minute from the 



SWIFT COUNTY. 351 

two wells lowers the water 25 feet, but they will yield at this rate 
for an indefinite period. 

Head of the water. — Throughout most of Swift County, especially 
the central and eastern portions, the water from the drift beds comes 
nearly to the surface. There are flowing wells in a number of locali- 
ties and they could without doubt be obtained on the lowest places 
adjoining Chippewa River and its tributaries, and probably in other 
depressed areas. Flows are reported (1) in the vicinity of Swift 
Falls, on East Branch of Chippewa River; (2) on the lowest ground 
in the vicinity of Lake Hassel, north of Benson; and (3) along Shako- 
pee Creek. They are also found along Chippewa River south of this 
county. In the city wells at Benson the water rises within 13 feet 
of the surface, which is virtually to the level of the river; at Danvers 
it is said to stand only 2 feet below the surface, but no flows are 
reported; and at Clontarf and Murdock it is reported to rise within 
6 to 12 feet of the surface. The head is obtained largely from the 
high morainic belt northeast of this county. 

Quality of the water. — The water from the lower portion of the gla- 
cial drift is softer than that from the upper. The latter contains much 
calcium and magnesium (the constituents that produce hardness), 
and these elements are associated to a large extent with the sulphate 
radicle and are deposited as hard scale in boilers. The deepest water, 
on the contrary, contains less calcium and magnesium, and only 
small quantities of sulphate radicle, and hence is better for boiler 
purposes. In the accompanying table compare analyses 1 to 4 with 
analysis 5. Though only one analysis (No. 5) is given of water from 
the lower portion of the drift, this one is known to be representative. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — Cretaceous sedimentary rocks probably underlie 
most of this county, but in some localities, especially near Minnesota 
River, they are absent. But little deep drilling has been done and 
nearly all the wells end in the surface deposits. In the unsuccessful 
well drilled for the city of Benson glacial drift extended to a depth 
of at least 170 feet and the granitic rocks were entered at about 400 
feet. Between these levels some shale was reported, but no reliable 
section is at hand. Shale was also reported in several wells in the 
western part of the county, the sections of two of which are given 
below. As shale has been encountered in all the counties bordering on 
Swift, it is safe to assume that it occurs generally in this county, but 
the Cretaceous must everywhere be thin, perhaps rarely reaching 
100 feet in thickness. Although it consists chiefly of soft gray-blue 
shale (" soapstone ") , there are probably also beds of sand or sand- 
stone in some localities. 



352 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



The following is the approximate section of an unsuccessful well 
on the farm of Philip Weise, sec. 28, T. 122 N., R. 42 W.: 

Section in western Swift County (Weise well). 

[Authority, Mr. Lawler, driller, Morris.] 



Glacial drift: 

Y ellow bowlder clay 

Blue bowlder day 

Cretaceous: Shale or "soapstone". 
A.rchean: Granite 



Thick- 
aess. 



Feet. 
30 

170 
50 



Depth. 



Feet. 
30 
200 
250 



The following is the approximate section of a well on the farm of 
Philip Schreck, NE. £ sec 8, T. 121 N., R. 43 W. 

Section in western Swift County (Schreck well). 

[Authority. Lewis Johnson, driller, Appleton.] 



Thick- ,, 
aess. De P th ' 



Glacial drift: 

Soil and yellow bowlder clay 

Quicksand 

B lue bowlder elay 

Cretaceous: Shale (a good yield of rather soft water at the depth of '-MS feet). 



Feet. 
30 

to 

145 
63 



I\<t. 
30 

40 
185 
248 



Yield ofvxxter. — West of this county, where the Cretaceous is much 
thicker, it contains sandstone strata, that yield large quantities of 
water, but in this county the granite comes nearer the surface and 
generally interrupts these water-bearing beds. The only successful 
well known to end in the Cretaceous is that of Philip Schreck, the 
section of which is given above. This well furnishes the farm supply 
and is said to have a good yield. On the other hand, a number of 
unsuccessful attempts at finding water in the Cretaceous are reported 
in this county and in Stevens County to the north. 

Quality of the water. — The water from Philip Sehreek's well is 
reported to be rather soft, but no analysis was made. The Creta- 
ceous water immediately north, west, and south of Swift County is 
soft but rich in the alkalies, and if any truly Cretaceous water exists 
in this county it is probably of the same character. This water is 
entirely different from that obtained from the lower portion of the 
glacial drift. It contains less calcium and magnesium and much 
more alkali. 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 



Granitic rocks were encountered in the village of Benson at a 
depth of about 400 feet," in the northwestern part of the county 

a The most reliable information was obtained from Mr. R. R. Johnson, who was president of the village 
Council at the time the deep well was drilled. Mr. Johnson stated that drillings were submitted to Prof. 
N. H. Winehell. state geologist, and were pronounced by him to be granite. Mr. Johnson also stated that 
indications of decayed granite began at a depth of about 400 feet. 



SWIFT COUNTY. 353 

(sec. 28, T. 122 N., R. 42 W.) at a depth of 250 feet, and in the 
village of Appleton at a depth of 65 feet; they have frequently been 
reached in drilling on all sides of this county. In general the depth 
to granite increases toward the northeast, but it varies within short 
distances owing to irregularities of the present surface and of the 
surface of the rock itself. Throughout most of the county the depth 
is probably more than 300 but less than 500 feet. 

Where the upper surface was not eroded by glacial action it 
appears to be greatly altered. Thus at Benson the decomposed 
material was entered at a depth of about 400 feet, but drilling was 
continued to about 700 feet, and for much of this distance the rock 
seems to have been more or less altered. 

The granite is not water bearing except that very rarely small sup- 
plies are derived from the decomposed upper portion. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Benson. — The city of Benson is situated on a level plain on the 
east bank of Chippewa River, which has formed almost no valley at 
this point. At the surface there is out wash sand and gravel, which 
is water bearing, and beneath this lies the unstratified glacial drift, 
containing a bed of gravel between the depths of 160 and 190 feet, 
which constitutes the best water zone available. 

The public supply is taken from two wells that end with screens 
at a depth of 167 feet. The yield and head of these wells are given 
above (pp. 350-351). The water has little permanent hardness and 
is relatively good for use in boilers. (See the analysis given in the' 
table on p. 355.) It is used by about 800 people, and 25,000 gallons 
is consumed daily. Approximately 60 per cent of the inhabitants 
rely on private wells, nearly all of which are either dug or driven into 
the outwash sand and gravel and end at depths ranging from about 
10 to 35 feet. The water is harder than that from the deep zone, 
as is shown by the analysis in the table (p. 355). The railway com- 
pany uses water from the river. 

Appleton. — The surface deposits at Appleton consist of unstratified 
glacial drift and outwash sand and gravel. In the drilling of a well 
at the brewery granite was struck, according to the report, at a 
depth of 65 feet. If any Cretaceous rocks exist in this locality they 
are probably thin and of no value as a source of water. 

Most of the supply for the public waterworks is taken from Pomme 
de Terre River without filtering, but a part is obtained from a well 
20 feet in diameter and 40 feet deep, situated on the bank of the river. 
Very few people use the public supply for drinking or cooking, but 
it is utilized for other purposes, and about 6,000 gallons is consumed 
daily. The private wells are for the most part either dug or driven 
and few are more than 35 feet deep. Water from the river is used 
at the mill. 

60920°— wsr 256—11 23 



354 UNDERGROUND WATEKS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

Virtually the entire farm supply is derived from wells that end in 
the surface deposits. These are of three types — driven, bored or 
dug, and drilled. The driven wells are confined to the areas where 
the outwash sands and gravels lie at the surface. Here they are the 
predominant type and usually furnish large and permanent supplies 
from depths rarely exceeding 40 feet. Outside of the areas of out- 
wash deposits nearly all the wells were at one time of the bored or 
dug type, but many of these failed to stand the test of severe droughts, 
and hence have been replaced to a great extent by drilled wells. 
In the morainic districts the bored or dug wells are likely to give 
better satisfaction than those on the more gently undulating prairies 
v where the drift includes less sand. Nearly all the drilled wells are 2 
inches in diameter, and have a wide range in depth, most of them 
being between 75 and 150 feet deep. They afford ample quantities of 
water and are but slightly affected by drought. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Deep drilling should not be undertaken in this county, because 
the granitic rocks are everywhere within a few hundred feet of the 
surface, and no adequate supply of water will be found after they 
are entered. As the granite is generally expected to be very hard 
and difficult to drill, the decomposition of the upper portion has led 
to much popular confusion. There need be, however, very little 
difficulty in recognizing the decomposed granite. It has brilliant 
colors (red, green, yellow, white, etc.), which seldom fail to attract 
attention, and some of the unaltered constituents, such as grains of 
transparent quartz or silvery flakes of mica, usually remain. Fre- 
quently, too, hard quartzose veins are encountered before drilling 
has progressed far. 

Though deep drilling should be out of the question, sinking to a 
depth of several hundred feet is recommended, especially for industrial 
purposes, because the water from the lower beds of the drift is gen- 
erally softer and better for boiler use than that from shallow sources. 
The following procedure may be adopted where the quality of the 
water is of sufficient importance to warrant the expense involved: 

1. Continue drilling until the granitic rocks are penetrated. 

2. Keep a record of the materials passed through, noting for each 
layer the exact thickness and depth beneath the surface. 

3. Whenever a water-bearing bed is encountered, determine also 
its yield and the quality of the water. 

When the granitic material is reached, complete exploration of 
the underground water resources has been made, and all that remains 
is to finish the well at the most desirable horizon. 



WABASHA COUNTY. 



355 



Mineral analyses of water in surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.) in Swift County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet. 

Diameter of well inches. 

Silica ( Si0 2 ) 

Iron(Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe203+Al203) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO<) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO<) 

Total solids 



Upper portion. 



30 



26 

.2 
4.5 
145 
62 

50 

.0 
493 
249 

33 

25 
847 



821 











214 


161 


47 


41 





46 


402 


414 


202 


170 


95 


109 



732 



20 

2 
26 

Trace. 

4.6 

175 

47 

56 

.0 
492 
159 
120 
10 
801 



Lower 
portion. 



167 

li and 8 
30 
1.2 
3.6 
71 
44 
16 
.0 
4:«l 
39 
2 
Trace. 
425 



1. Well at Mr. Schoepf's blacksmith shop at Appleton. September 4, 1907. 

2. "Storle's well" at Appleton. November 24, 1907. 

3. "Stillwell's well" at Appleton. November 29, 1907. 

4. Well at Hotel Columbia at Benson. September 25, 1907. 

5. City wells at Benson. September 25, 1907. 

Analyses 1, 4, and 5 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whitlaker, chemist 
Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 2 and 3 were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist, Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. 



WABASHA COUNTY. 
By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Wabasha County forms a relatively level plateau 
cut by deep stream valleys. This plateau has an elevation varying 
from 1,100 feet above the sea along the northern border of the county 
to 1,150 in the western portion, and 1,200 in the south and east, 
where it is approximately 525 feet above the Mississippi. It is cut 
into two parts near the center of the county by the valley of the 
Zumbro, which in its lower portion is 500 feet below the upland 
surface. The eastern edge of the county is further cut by numerous 
tributaries of the Mississippi, which extend back only a few miles 
from the river. The valleys of these tributaries, as well as that of 
the Zumbro, are sharp and canyon-like. The lower part of the 
Zumbro Valley is 1 to 2 miles in width and is marked by terraces. 

An interesting physiographic feature is found at the mouth of 
Zumbro River, where the material transported by this stream, 
intermingled with that brought down by Chippewa River from 
central Wisconsin, has formed a broad alluvial dam stretching into 
the channel of the Mississippi and ponding the waters to form Lake 
Pepin. 



356 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The surface formations include alluvium, terrace, and outwash 
gravels, loess, and ordinary glacial drift. 

The alluvium occurs in the valleys of the Mississippi and its 
tributaries where these have formed flood plains. Its thickness is 
unknown, but presumably averages between 25 and 50 feet. The 
coarser alluvium of the smaller streams and of the fan formed at 
the mouth of the Zumbro generally contains abundant water, the 
supplies being available to shallow wells and furnishing sufficient 
quantities for domestic and farm purposes. The alluvial deposits 
of the Mississippi include a considerable amount of silt, and the 
supplies of water are consequently smaller. 

Terrace gravels are found at Kellogg and other points along the 
Mississippi, where they reach a height of 65 feet above the flood 
plain. Owing to the fact that the water readily escapes from the 
terraces into the adjacent valleys, it is generally necessary for wells 
to penetrate to the drainage level. 

The loess forms a coating over the uplands 15 feet or less in thickness. 
Owing to its thinness it is of little consequence as a water-bearing 
bed, but it is important in collecting the rainfall and feeding it to 
the underlying formations. 

The glacial drift is relatively thin, occurring mainly in patches 
beneath the loess over the flat uplands. In places, however, along 
the western border of the county, it seems to reach a thickness of 
50 to 70 feet. A deposit of modified drift, occurring as a sort of 
outwash plain, lies in the western portion of the county, stretching 
eastward from the morainal accumulations. Water is found in 
various sandy and gravelly layers of the drift in sufficient quantities 
to supply domestic and farm wells. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

Of the upper formations of the Ordovician system only the Platte- 
ville limestone, here about 10 feet thick, is represented in the county. 
It caps the elevation known as Lone Mound and occurs on the 
highest uplands southwest of Plainview along the southern border 
of the county. It carries very little water and is to be considered 
as a source of supply only for "wet weather open wells." 

The St. Peter sandstone, which in this county is about 100 feet 
thick, lies beneath the Platteville limestone on Lone Mound and on 
the high land near Plainview and outcrops over a considerable area 
of the uplands in the vicinity of this village. Owing to the fact that 
it occurs only on the higher lands, where its waters can escape to 
lower levels, it is not commonly a source of water supply in Wabasha 
County, though it would furnish water in moderate amounts to 



WABASHA COUNTY. 357 

wells on the upland about Plainview and in parts of Mount Pleasant 
Township. 

The Shakopee dolomite underlies a considerable part of the uplands, 
especially in the west and south. It has a thickness of about 35 feet 
and is generally less than 50 feet and rarety over 100 feet below the 
surface. It is reached by domestic and farm wells, to which it will 
yield small supplies. 

The New Richmond sandstone, which is about 20 feet thick, out- 
crops on the uplands several miles back from the bluffs of the Mis- 
sissippi and the Zumbro. It affords small supplies of hard water to 
the wells penetrating it. 

The Oneota dolomite, which is very similar to the Shakopee, forms 
the upland crests and upper parts of the cliffs along the Mississippi 
and Zumbro valleys. It carries some water in its joints, bedding 
planes, and solution channels, and at a distance from its outcrops 
usually yields enough for farm purposes. 

The Jordan sandstone, which in this region is a buff or yellow 
sandstone 100 to 120 feet thick, outcrops in the lower parts of the 
cliffs. It forms an important water-bearing bed and will yield good 
supplies to deep wells almost anywhere in the county. The water 
from this formation fails to rise to the surface, except perhaps in 
the Zumbro Valle}". 

The St. Lawrence formation, which consists of shales and lime- 
stones with some sandstone beds, is exposed at the base of the cliffs 
and lies beneath the flood plains of the Mississippi and the lower 
portion of the Zumbro, having a maximum thickness of about 230 
feet. It will yield only small amounts of water. 

The Dresbach sandstone is estimated to be about 50 feet thick in 
this count}". It will yield large quantities of water, which is con- 
fined by the St. Lawrence formation under pressure sufficient to lift 
it nearly or quite to the surface. 

The underlying shales and sandy layers have a thickness, according 
to the section of the Wabasha well, of about 150 feet, and according 
to the section of the Lake City well considerably greater. These are 
not important as a source of water, but serve to confine under artesian 
pressure the water in the subjacent sandstone. The underlying 
porous Cambrian sandstone is 225 feet or more thick and will yield 
large volumes of water that rises nearly or quite to the surface. 

Beneath the sandstone just described, according to the evidence of 
the Lake City well, there are 320 feet or more of red shale, sand- 
stone, and quartzite which arc not water bearing. Underlying these 
will be found the granite, which is likewise void of available water. 

Below is given the section of the well drilled in 1882 at Lake City 
for the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company. At 
this early date the statement was emphatically made by Mr. Swan, 



358 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

the driller, that the red clastic series was never known to add materially 
to the water supply furnished by the overlying beds, and he advised 
the withdrawal of the drill whenever it was reached. 

Section of railway ivell at Lake City. 
[W. E. Swan, driller.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Sand and gravel (alluvium) 

Blue sand and shale (lower part of St. Lawrence?) 

Sandstone (Dresbach) and gray sandy shale 

Yellow and gray sandstone 

Red shale and quartzite 



Feet. 
207 

68 
127 

88 
320 



Feet. 
207 
275 
412 
500 
820 



UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — Shallow wells dug into the surface deposits were at first 
the principal source of supply. The inferior quality of the water, 
the liability to pollution, and failure in dry seasons eventually led 
to the general substitution of deeper drilled wells. In those parts of 
the uplands remote from the river valleys the wells are commonly 
from 100 to 150 feet deep, but near the edges of the plateau many 
go to depths of 250 to 350" feet, or even more. In the valleys driven 
wells sunk into the alluvium to a depth of 20 to 75 feet afford the 
most common source of supply, but when large volumes are required 
drilled wells are sunk to the underlying sandstones. 

Head of the water. — Back from Mississippi and Zumbro rivers 
water stands in wells at a considerable depth below the surface, and 
as lower supplies have been tapped the head has gradually been 
lowered. In the valley of Mississippi River the water rises nearly 
to the surface, but it does not flow either in Lake City or in Wabasha, 
though flows are obtained at Red Wing to the north and at Winona 
to the south. It is improbable that flows can be obtained by new 
wells at either of the cities mentioned, but it is possible that they 
could be procured along the Mississippi south of the Zumbro. 

Springs. — Springs emerge at numerous points along the base of 
the cliffs bordering the rivers, both from the limestones and the sand- 
stones. Some are of considerable size and are important sources of 
domestic and farm supplies. Springs also issue from the limestone 
on the uplands, but their volume is generally small. 

Springs usually emerge from the top of an outcrop of an impervious 
formation. Thus the top of the St. Lawrence, essentially a shale 
formation, and the top of the Shakopee, a compact dolomite, mark 
the situation of most of the springs of the county. 



WABASHA COUNTY. 



359 



Quality of the water. — An inspection of the analyses shows no 
great difference in the quality of the underground water from dif- 
ferent formations. The water from the Plainview well, which comes 
largely from the Jordan sandstone, is better than that from the 
alluvium of Lake City, Wabasha, and Weaver. Only one analysis 
of water from a deep well has been obtained. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Wabasha. — The city of Wabasha has no public supply. The 
people depend mainly on driven wells sunk from 15 to 70 feet into 
the alluvium. A deep well was drilled for the R. E. Jones Company, 
the section of which is reported to be as follows: 

Well section at Wabasha. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Alluvium 

Shale (lower part of St. Lawrence?) 
Sandstone (Dresbach and shale?)... 

Red sandstone 

Granite (entered) 



Feet. 

165 

35 

200 

40 

6 



Feet. 
165 
200 
400 
440 
446 



Lake City. — Twenty 4-inch wells, driven into the alluvium, supply 
the public waterworks of Lake Cit} r and provide water for about 
90 per cent of the population. They yield about 100,000 gallons 
daily. 

Plainview. — There are at Plainview two village wells; one, 325 
feet deep, ends in the Jordan sandstone; the other, 692 feet deep, 
extends to the Dresbach sandstone. The stratigraphic section is as 
follows : 

Well section at Plainview . 



Soil, with remnants of St. Peter sandstone 

Shakopee: Limestone 

New Richmond: Sandstone 

Oneota: Limestone 

Jordan: Sandstone (water) 

St. Lawrence: 

Limestone 

Green clay (very sticky) 

Dresbach: Sandstone (water) 



Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


70 


70 


40 


110 


30 


140 


180 


320 


120 


440 


50 


490 


180 


670 


22 


692 



Elgin. — The waterworks in Elgin village are supplied from a well 
275 feet deep which taps the Jordan sandstone. 

Mazeppa. — The village well at Mazeppa is 90 feet deep. Most of 
the people have private supplies. 



360 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



ANALYSES. 

Mineral analyses of water in Wabasha County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth .... feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ).. 

Calcium (Ca) ' 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids • 



Streams. 



7.9 
49 
15 



213 
9.9 



187 



8.9 
56 
21 
8.9 
293 
4.8 
1.2 
244 



Surface deposits. 



2-1 



394 
26 
6.2 
395 



96 
35 
22 

468 
20 
20 

431 



40 
9.7 
76 
27 
11 
358 
29 
2.6 
332 



81 
27 
15 

286 
35 
11 

315 



49 
4.6 
61 

28 

10 
289 

4S 
3.6 
298 



Jordan 
sand- 
stone. 



325 

20 

57 

26 

3 

289 

16 

1.7 

260 



1. Mississippi River and Wabasha. January, 1896. 

2. Whitewater Creek at Weaver. December, 1891. 

3. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Weaver. November, 1891. 

4. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Lake City. January, 1894. 

5. City filtration well at Lake City. November, 1891. 

6. City supply well at Lake City. November, 1906. 

7. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Wabasha. November, 1891. 
, 8. Village well at Plainview. November, 1906. 

Analyses 6 and 8 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. S. Spaulding. Analyses 
2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Com- 
pany. Analysis 1 was furnished by the Dearborn Drug and Chemical Company, Chicago. 

WASECA COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Nearly all of this county stands between 1,050 and 1,200 feet above 
sea level. Its surface throughout all but its eastern portion is flat 
or only gently undulating, but along the eastern edge there is an 
irregular morainal belt 3 to 8 miles wide, which rises about 50 feet 
above the surrounding region. Lakes are numerous both in the 
depressions of the moraine and in the shallow sags of the adjoining 
plain. The county lies within the drainage basin of Minnesota River, 
its waters entering that stream by way of Lesueur River, which flows 
through a shallow valley and has nowhere cut into rock. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The glacial drift mantles virtually the entire county, varying in 
thickness from 125 to more than 200 feet. In the extreme north- 
eastern portion and in the central and southwestern portions its 
thickness is generally less than 150 feet; along the eastern border 

jand toward the northwest it is nearly everywhere greater; and along 
a belt bordering the Chicago and Northwestern Railway from the 

.county line to a point beyond Janesville it appears to be commonly 
great, possibly owing to the existence of a buried channel extending 
to the Minnesota at Mankato. The drift contains sandy and gravelly 
beds which commonly yield water and will afford adequate supplies 



WASECA COUNTY. 



361 



to domestic and farm wells and probably enough for small industrial 
purposes. 

PALEOZOIC FORMATIONS. 

The Galena, Decorah, and Platteville formations are not seen at the 
surface, but from well records and from their occurrence in adjacent 
regions they are known to underlie at Jeast the southeastern half 
of the county. Several hundred feet of strata belonging to these 
formations were found in a well at Freeborn, a few miles south of the 
county boundary, from which point the thickness gradually decreases 
northwestward . 

Beneath the drift in the northwestern half of the county, and 
beneath the Platteville limestone in the southeastern half, the St. 
Peter sandstone is struck in drilling. It is white and is apparently 
about 120 feet thick. It carries much water, which rises considera- 
bly when encountered, yielding supplies sufficient for all ordinary 
purposes. 

About 75 feet below the St. Peter lies the New Richmond sandstone, 
which is probably 15 or 20 feet thick; about 250 feet below the St. 
Peter lies the Jordan sandstone, which is approximately 70 feet 
thick, and about 500 feet below the St. Peter occurs the-Dresbach 
sandstone, which is 90 feet or more thick. All these formations con- 
tain large supplies of water under sufficient pressure to cause it to 
enter the wells freely. 

The following record of the city well at Waseca gives a good section 
of the deep-lying rocks in this region: 

Well section at Waseca. 
[Authority, J. P. McCarthy.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Glacial drift, mostly blue clay 

Galena, Decorah, and Platteville formations: 

Limestone 

Shale and " slate rock " 

Limestone ... ,...•• 

St. Peter sandstone, mingled sandstone and shale 

Shakopee dolomite: Limestone, reddish in color 

New Richmond sandstone and Oneota dolomite, limestone (like above, but separated 

from it by a seam of different material, probably the New Richmond sandstone) 

Jordan sandstone: 

White sandstone (water) 

Reddish sandstone . ■ 

White sandstone (water) 

Red sandstone, probably iron-stained 

St. Lawrence formation : 

Limestone 

Green shale 

Hard red limestone 

Green shale 

Blue shale : ; 

Red shale • 

Yellow shale 

Dresbach sandstone and underlying shale: 

Sandstone mixed with shale (water) 

Yellow sandy shale ' 



Feet. 
185 

C 

87 

16 

121 

100 



20 
30 
20 

25 

6 
3 
65 
3 

20 
85 
33 

44 
133 



Feet. 
185 

191 
278 
294 
415 
515 



690 
720 
740 
765 

771 
774 
839 
842 
862 
947 



1,024 
1,157 



362 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Wells. — As has already been stated, the greater part of the county 
is underlain by 100 to 200 feet of glacial drift. Unlike most regions 
where such conditions prevail, this county contains relatively few 
shallow dug or bored wells. Their absence is apparently due to the 
fact that but little sand or gravel occurs in the upper part of the 
drift, and hence there is so little available water that in dry seasons 
a large proportion of the shallow wells failed. As a result deeper 
drilled wells were substituted, obtaining their supplies from sandy 
layers in the lower part of the drift or, more rarely, in the underlying 
formations. Perhaps nine- tenths of the wells draw from the drift 
and one-tenth from rock. 

Head of the water. — In most of the wells the water stands consider- 
ably below the surface; but in the lowlands along the streams a 
considerable number of flowing wells are reported, apparently belong- 
ing to the same general field as the flowing wells in Faribault County. 
They are not deep and the water is under only slight pressure at the 
surface. 

Quality of the water. — Several mineral analyses are given in the. 
accompanying table. The water is in general similar to the typical 
Paleozoic waters; but it has a somewhat greater content of alkalies 
and sulphates, in which respects it shows a tendency to resemble the 
Cretaceous waters farther west. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Waseca. — The formations underlying the city of Waseca are shown 
in the section of the deep city well, which was given above. This 
well, together with another 600 feet deep, furnishes the public sup- 
ply, on which about two-thirds of the inhabitants depend, consum- 
ing approximately 50,000 gallons daily. Analyses are given in the 
table (p. 363) of water from the deep city well and from the railway 
well, which penetrates the St. Peter sandstone. 

New Richland. — The public water at New Richland is drawn from 
a well 150 feet deep, which extends into the Galena limestone. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Throughout most of the county drilled wells which penetrate the 
lower portion of the glacial drift form a satisfactory source of water. 
However, if a larger yield is required than the drift will afford, drill- 
ing should be continued to the sandstones, which will be encountered 
in every part of the county and which will always furnish water gen- 
erously. No advantage in regard to the head of the water is to be 
expected from deep drilling. 



WASHINGTON COUNTY. 

Mineral analyses of water in Waseca County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



363 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SOO 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



Lakes. 



4.1 
5.7 
1.0 
5.8 

22 
6.7 
4 

38 



2.2 

32 

18 

29 
188 

20 

29 
226 



Glacial 
drift. 



84 
2.1 
94 
30 
20 
450 
28 
4.7 
420 



St. Peter sand- 
stone. 



439 
22 
101 
42 
78 
500 
172 

4.9 
669 



439 
25 
87 
29 
95 
525 
101 

6.7 
604 



Deep for- 
mations. 



1,157 

21 

96 

28 

27 
411 

63 
7.3 
436 



1. Water from Clear Lake. January, 1901. [This is apparently from melted ice. C. W. H.] 

2. Water from Loon Lake. June, 1889. 

3. Jennison Brothers & Co. well at Janesville. January, 1894. 

4. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Waseca. March, 1891. 

5. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Waseca. June, 1896. 

6. City well at Waseca. April, 1896. 

Analyses 1, 2, 4, and 5 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
Company. Analyses 3 and 6 were furnished by Edgar & Mariner, chemists. 

WASHINGTON COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 



SURFACE FEATURES. 

Washington County ranges in elevation from 700 feet on the bottom 
lands in the south to more than 1,000 feet on the morainic summits 
in the central and northern parts. The northern and western portions 
are in general markedly morainic, the surface being characterized by 
rough and irregular hills with intermediate depressions abounding in 
lakes; but in the extreme northwest there is a considerable area that 
is nearly flat. At an elevation of 800 to 850 feet above sea level and 
100 to 150 feet above Mississippi and St. Croix rivers is a terrace 
extending the entire length of the St. Croix Valley from the north- 
ern end of the county to the southern, there joining a similar but 
wider one in the valley of the Mississippi. The width of the St. 
Croix terrace is rather uniform, averaging about If miles; the width 
of the Mississippi terrace varies from about 1 mile, near Newport, 
to 4 miles, near Cottage Grove, beyond which it narrows to 1J miles 
at its junction with the St. Croix terrace. The flood plains of these 
two valleys are, in general, very narrow within the limits of this 
county. The smaller streams are mainly tributary to the St. Croix, 
but their valleys are of no great width or depth. 

As Washington County lies on the border of the so-called driftless 
area, its topography is typical neither of the glaciated region, as rep- 
resented in the central part of Minnesota, nor of the driftless region 
typically developed 50 to 100 miles farther southeast. 



364 UNDERGROUND WATERS OE SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Alluvium occurs along the Mississippi and also in the valleys of the 
large creeks. It carries considerable water and affords supplies that 
are generally sufficient for domestic and farm purposes. 

The terrace deposits consist of sands and gravels laid down by 
streams flowing at distinctly higher elevations than those of the 
present rivers. The upper level stands in places more than 200 feet 
above the river level and the deposits are at least 150 feet thick. 
They occur along St. Croix River from the northern boundary of the 
county to the Mississippi and also cover extensive areas along the 
northeast side . of the Mississippi between St. Paul and Hastings. 
They are porous, but the water level is low at many points near the 
exposed edges. 

Outwash deposits consist of sands and gravels deposited by the 
glacial floods issuing from the ice sheet and flowing over the upland 
surfaces. They are generally flat or gently undulating, but in some 
places, where deposited very near the ice margin, they are rolling and 
have a morainic aspect. Their thickness is commonly between 
25 and 50 feet. They are extensively developed in the northeastern 
corner and especially for several miles along the Anoka County line. 
The water fills the pores of the material and is prevented from sinking 
deeper by the underlying impervious clay. In most places it accumu- 
lates up to the level of the stream valleys and affords abundant 
supplies. 

The glacial drift proper has a thickness of probably 80 to 100 feet 
or more in the north and northwest, but less in the southern part of 
the county. Water is found in the sandy and gravelly portions 
wherever these are not drained by adjacent valleys or other depres- 
sions. 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

The Platteville limestone is the uppermost hard rock formation 
represented in this county. It occurs along the western border and in 
isolated hills north of Cottage Grove and south of Stillwater. From 
the few openings that quarrymen and farmers have made it appears 
as a thin bed of blue limestone weathering yellowish, interbedded 
with layers of shale, the whole thickness being not more than 10 
or 15 feet. 

The St. Peter sandstone has a total thickness of more than 100 feet, 
but in many localities the upper portion has been removed by erosion. 
The formation outcrops or lies immediately below the surface deposits 
in a strip that borders the Platteville limestone in the southwestern 
portion of the county and widens to the north, where it covers many 
square miles. It is a satisfactory source of supply in the flat areas 



WASHINGTON COUNTY. 365 

in the northwestern part of the county, but is not so good a source 
in the south, where its waters are drained to the lower land farther 
east. 

The Shakopee dolomite is represented in this county by a buff to 
gray magnesian limestone interbedded with shale partings and 
having a thickness of 25 to 65 feet. It lies at the surface or beneath 
the drift in a broad belt over the eastern half of the county, con- 
stituting an intermediate level between the Platteville outcrops and 
the valley of the Mississippi. Water occurs only in small amounts. 

The New Richmond sandstone is a thin calcareous sandstone that 
outcrops along the sides of the valley of the Mississippi and is no- 
where far below the surface. It yields moderate quantities of water 
in the central and western portions of the county, except near the 
river, where drainage toward the valley materially reduces the 
supply. 

The Oneota dolomite is a buff or pink magnesian limestone similar 
to the Shakopee, except that it is thicker and more free from con- 
cretionary structures. It occurs in the lower part of the Mississippi 
Valley, in the southern half of the county, and is believed to lie 
beneath the surface deposits near the northeastern corner. In 
general the supply of water within this formation is no greater than 
in the overlying glacial drift. 

The Jordan sandstone, which is between 50 and 90 feet thick, 
outcrops in the St. Croix Valley below Stillwater and in the lower 
portions of the valley slopes above this city. It yields large supplies 
of water at points back from the river, especially where covered by 
the Oneota and Shakopee in the northern third of the county. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists essentially of a magnesian 
green sand and associated green shale layers. It has a considerable 
thickness, but only a few feet of the top is exposed, and that only in 
the bottom of the St. Croix Valley at Stillwater and northward. 
Small quantities of water are found in the sandy layers, but the 
supply is far less than in the overlying and underlying sandstones. 

The Dresbach sandstone and underlying shales are not exposed 
at the surface, but are reached by the deep well at Stillwater and 
have a combined thickness of several hundred feet. The yield of 
water from the porous sandstones, at least in the deep well at Still- 
water, is abundant and sufficient for all ordinary industrial purposes 
and for the water supplies of cities of considerable size. They afford 
in fact, a large portion of the water used in the city of Stillwater. 

The red clastic series consists of a remarkable thickness of red 
sandstone alternating with shales of the same color. It contains 
some water, but its yield is insignificant compared with that of the 
overlying formations. 



366 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



The deep well sunk at Stillwater in 1888 and 1889 by a stock 
company in search of natural gas is one of the deepest and most 
notable wells in the Northwest. From a set of samples furnished to 
Mr. A. D. Meeds, of the University of Minnesota, the following record 
has been compiled. Because of the importance of this well in the 
elucidation of the stratigraphic history of the early Paleozoic in 
Minnesota the section is given in considerable detail. 

Section of Stillwater deep ivell." 



Glacial drift: Coarse, yellow sand (much rusted) 

Oneota: Gray limestone 

Jordan: 

Fine grained quartz sand 

Fine-grained pure white sand 

St. Lawrence(?): 

Light-green shale with some sand and limestone 

Very fine white sand 

Light-green shale with grains of sand 

Dresbach sandstone and underlying beds: 

Fine-grained white sand (grayish owing to coating of lime) 

Coarse-grained gray sand with some green material 

Coarse-grained white sand (some pyrite and some pieces of shale) 

Gray sand with green grains (effervesces slightly) 

Gray shale or limestone with quartz (effervesces) 

Impure sandstone with much broken dark material, some red and yellow grains 
(effervesces) 

Fine-grained quartz sand 

Pink shale with streaks of white and green quartz grains (effervesces strongly) 

Coarse quartz sand (some grains very large) 

Red clastic series: 

Dark-red shale with sand grains (effervesces) 

Coarse quartz sand 

Fine-grained dark-red shale (effervesces) 

Fine-grained dark-red sandstone (effervesces) 

Same as last (very fine grained) 

Same as last in general appearance (a small amount of salt water was struck at 1,950 
feet) 

Material same as last, mixed with calcite and pink grains of feldspar, giving a mottled 
appearance (at a depth of 2,450 feet a salt pocket was encountered and a small 
amount of brine continued to flow into the well to the close) 

Darker than last 

Fine-grained dark-red sandstone (effervesces) 

Keweenawan diabase: 

Dark-brown diabasic rock with kaolinized feldspar and some green grains 

Dark-brown diabase similar to last, with some kaolin, calcite, and a notable amount 
of a green mineral found in long slender fibers 

Fine-grained slate-colored diabase with pieces of native copper 

Same as last but mixed with white material 

Fine-grained slate-colored diabase with pieces of native copper 

Fine-grained drab-colored rock with green material 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 
18 
85 



41 
12 
56 

31 
10 
10 
27 
31 

70 

10 

80 

148 

13 
5 

11 
175 
31 

1,327 



650 

46 

4 



100 
25 
5 
96 
39 



Depth. 



Feet. 
18 
103 

142 
169 

210 
222 
278 

309 
319 
329 
356 
387 

457 
467 
547 
695 



713 
724 
899 
930 

2,257 



2,907 
2,953 
2,957 

3,182 

3,282 
3,307 
3,312 
3.408 
3,447 



a Meeds, A. D., Bull. Minnesota Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 274-277. 



UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 



Head of the water. — The head of the water in Washington County 
varies greatly, owing to the topography. In the southern end, 
where Mississippi and St. Croix rivers are only 10 to 12 miles apart 
and the nearly horizontal Paleozoic rocks rise between them, forming 
a plateau 200 to 300 feet high, the drainage of the successive layers 
is sufficient to lower the water to a great depth. At Newport, St. 
Paul Park. Pullman avenue, and on the St. Croix side of the county 



WASHINGTON COUNTY. 367 

wells are drilled to considerable depths before a permanent supply of 
water is reached in the Paleozoic sandstones; but in the northern 
portion of the county, away from the St. Croix gorge, the water from 
these formations is generally lifted near the surface, and in the Valley 
of the Mississippi they give rise to flowing wells. Upon the plateau, 
even in the southern part, water stands in the sandy deposits at 15 to 
30 feet below the surface, held there by the underlying impervious * 
clay of the glacial drift. 

Springs. — There is a series of springs which issue from the rock 
walls all along St. Croix and Mississippi rivers. Scores of them are 
used by the farmers and occupants of summer cottages. 

WATER SUPPLY AT STILLWATER. 

The system of waterworks in the city of Stillwater is owned by the 
Stillwater Water Company, a private corporation. The supply is 
obtained (1) from the deep well the section of which is given above, 
(2) from a spring flowing from a sandstone (probably the Jordan), 
and (3) from Lake McKusick. The deep well yields 1,250,000 gallons 
a day from the sandstone formations between 650 and 750 feet below 
the surface, the overlying Jordan and Dresbach being cut off by the 
casing, which is carried to 650 feet. The spring yields about 250,000 
gallons a day. Lake McKusick will furnish 2,000,000 gallons or more 
a day, but unfortunately is polluted and unsatisfactory. Only the 
spring and well waters are used for drinking purposes. The water is 
distributed from three reservoirs, the aggregate capacity of which is 
approximately 300,000 gallons. About three-fourths of the people 
use the public supply, and over 1,000,000 gallons of water are reported 
to be consumed each day. Owing to its situation near a large and 
rapidly growing community, the spring should be carefully watched 
if its use as a drinking supply is continued. In the state-prison 
yards there are several springs, some of which have been utilized for 
many years. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The surface deposits in this county contain an uncommon amount of 
sand, and hence constitute an important source of water wherever 
they have a reasonable thickness. The underlying formations are 
utilized along Mississippi River and where the drift is thin. The for- 
mations available for water supplies within the county are the 
St. Peter sandstone in the higher hills near the western boundary, the 
New Richmond sandstone, the Jordan sandstone, and the Dresbach 
and underlying sandstones. Flows can be obtained in the Mississippi 
Valley, but not on the uplands, though in the northwest the water will 
rise near the surface. 



368 



UNDERGEOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 



Mineral analyses of water in Washington County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



1. 
Alluvium. 



2. 
Glacial 
drift. 



Depth feet 

Calcium (Ca) 

^Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SOj) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



20 
44 
20 
8.3 
226 
25 

1.5 
215 



452 

375 



1. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Afton. 

2. Spring at Forest Lake. 1897. N. Lehman, chemist. 



November, 1891. G. N. Prentiss, chemist. 



WATONWAN COUNTY. 

By 0. E. Meinzer. 

SURFACE FEATURES. 

The surface of Watonwan County slopes gradually from an eleva- 
tion of about 1,300 feet above sea level at the southwestern corner 
to slightly above 1,000 feet at the northeastern corner, but so gradual 
is the descent that is is quite unnoticeable. The topography is for 
the most part that of a gently undulating plain, almost unaffected 
by erosion and covered with numerous ponds and swamps. But 
this comparatively level surface is broken near the northwestern 
corner by a ridge of Sioux quartzite, which rises 50 to 100 feet above 
the surrounding prairie, and in other localities by shallow stream 
valleys. North Fork of the Watonwan flows through the northern 
part of the county and South Fork through the southern and eastern. 
Two miles east of Madelia the two unite to form the Watonwan, 
which flows eastward into Blue Earth River. Where the Watonwan 
leaves the county its valley is about 50 feet deep, but farther upstream 
it is much shallower. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description.— The glacial drift constitutes a blanket that conceals 
the older formations in all parts of the county except in one small 
area, where rock appears at the surface. Because of the irregulari- 
ties of the underlying quartzite near the western margin, the drift 
sheet has here a correspondingly irregular thickness and in a few 
localities is extremely attenuated. Farther east, however, where the 
quartzite is not present, the drift attains a greater and more uniform 
depth, probably reaching a maximum of nearly 300 feet and an 
average of somewhat less than 200 feet. 

Yield of water. — The water-bearing members of the drift may be 
divided into two groups — (1) the gravelly portions of the surficial 
yellow clay layer and (2) the seams of sand and gravel either inter- 
bedded with the blue bowlder clay or lying at its base. The surficial 
gravelly beds yield supplies which are frequently small and readily 



WATONWAN COUNTY. 



369 



affected by drought, though because of the flat surface and poor 
drainage the ground-water level stands near the surface and is not 
as readily lowered in dry seasons as might be supposed. The seams 
in the bowlder clay generally furnish generous and permanent sup- 
plies. Mr. James Weisher, a driller at Madelia, reports that it is 
his practice to test the farm wells which penetrate to this zone at 
25 gallons a minute, and that the wells included in the following 
table were submitted to this test: 

Wells in Watonwan County tested at 25 gallons a minute. 



Owner. 



Location. 



Franklin Investment Company S. J sec. 17, T. 107N.,R.30 W. 

W. W. Murphy I SE.J sec. 21, T. 107 N., R . 30 W 

F.Teighe.. 
R. Sargent. 
D. Griffin.. 
A. Bocock. 



SE. | sec. 5, T. 106 N., R. 30 W . . 
SW. i sec. 21, T. 106 N., R. 30 W. 
NW. J sec. 10, T. 106 N., R. 30 W 
NE. J sec. 35, T. 107 N., R. 31 W. 
S. D. Whiting j SW. \ sec. 9, T. 106 N., R. 31 W.. 



Diameter. 


Depth. 


Inches. 


Feci. 


6 


114 


6 


155 


6 


212 


6 


64 


44 


182 


4 


88 


6 


255 



Date. 



1907 
1907 
1906 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 



Head of the water. — The surface is so flat and so little dissected by 
valleys that there is little opportunity for the ground water to 
escape. Hence all the porous parts of the drift have become satu- 
rated and the water from all depths rises nearly to the surface. On 
the other hand, there are few abrupt differences in elevation, and 
therefore few low-lying areas in which flows can be obtained. There 
is, however, a group of flowing wells in the valley of Spring Branch 
Creek, southeast of Madelia, and a few others are found in different 
parts of the county, two very shallow ones in the southern portion 
of the city of St. James and one in the NW. | sec. 32, T. 106 N., 
R. 31 W. In all these the water overflows with but very slight 
pressure. In the higher areas in the western part of the county the 
water does not always rise near the surface. 

Quality of the water. — The water from the glacial drift is all hard, 
most of it being rich in calcium sulphate and hence forming hard 
scale in boilers. In general the hardness decreases toward the east. 
Moreover, the water from very shallow sources is commonly not so 
hard as that from deeper beds. As shallow water in the zone of oxi- 
dation contains much less iron than that from greater depths, and as 
iron is much more noticeable than other dissolved minerals, the deep 
water is often mistakenly believed to be " harder" than the shallow 
water, although in fact the amount of iron present is no indication 
of the degree of hardness. 

UNDERLYING FORMATIONS. 

Description. — Above the Archean granite lies the Algonkian Sioux 
quartzite, which is probably hundreds of feet thick. In the eastern 
part of the county this quartzite is deeply buried beneath younger 

60920°— wsp 256—11 24 



370 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

formations, but in the western tier of townships it comes close to 
the surface, and near the northwestern corner it outcrops at an ele- 
vation of about 1,250 feet above sea level. Lying upon the Algon- 
kian surface, probably with an unconformable relation, is a series of 
Paleozoic strata that dip southeast. Hence if the formations 5*ounger 
than the Paleozoic were removed the quartzite would be exposed 
over a considerable area in the western part of the county, and toward 
the southeast successively younger Paleozoic rocks would be found 
outcropping. Spread over much, but not all, of this Algonkian- 
Paleozoic surface appears to lie a thin series of Cretaceous shales and 
sandstones. In preglacial times the quartzite to the west must have 
projected rather conspicuously above the surrounding Cretaceous 
surface, but it is now nearly buried under the mantle of drift. 

The approximate sections at St. James, Madelia, and Hanska 
(Brown County), together with their probable correlations, are shown 
in Plate XVI. It is perhaps superfluous to state that in a situation 
such as is here presented, where several unconformable rock systems, 
not distinctly different in lithologic character, exist everywhere 
concealed from view, it is impossible to make any close correlations. 
There appears, however, to be little reason for doubting that the 
indurated sandstones and shales in the lower portions of the St. 
James and Madelia sections belong to the Paleozoic formations that 
are known to occur throughout southeastern Minnesota, and that 
the strata of incoherent sand and soft shale and lignite encountered 
between the glacial drift and the indurated rocks belong to the Creta- 
ceous, which is generally recognized in western Minnesota and Iowa. 

The Algonkian possesses such distinctive lithologic characters that 
there is but little uncertainty in regard to its interpretation from well 
records. The greatest depth to which it has been penetrated in this 
county is at Butterfield, where a well 520 feet deep was drilled for the 
Chicago and Northwestern Railway Company. At 325 feet below 
the surface the drill entered a "hard red sandstone," in which it 
continued to the depth of 500 feet, the last 20 feet being reported to 
consist of light-colored sandstone. No doubt all the rock below 325 
feet belongs to the Sioux quartzite. 

Yield of water.— The thick beds of sand and sandstone that occur 
beneath the glacial drift in the central and eastern portions of the 
county will yield inexhaustible supplies of water. The 6-inch cream- 
ery well at St. James, which is finished with an open end in a stratum 
of sandstone at a depth of 327 feet, was tested at 90 gallons a minute 
for many hours of continuous pumping without lowering the water 
perceptibly; the new city well at St. James, which is also finished 
with an open end and is reported to be supplied from a depth of 380 
feet, has been tested at 400 gallons a minute; the old city well, which 
likewise gets its supply from the sandstone formations, has been 



U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 266 PLATE XVI 



Feet above 

sea level St. 'James 

-l 100- 



Madelia 



Hanska 



-10.00- 



o 



0) 

D 

o 

til 

o 

< 

900-ul- 
o 



800 



OLhl 
°£ 

<Q 
mz 
</)< 

-7oo|r 

m-i 

CQlll 

OQ 

EZ 
DO 



-600- 



o 

I- 

QU) ' 
UJ 

a. 



5t-js: 



b^S^f Yellow clay 

Blue my^ 

Sand 



'_r-^-^j^-~ 



Blue shale 
t— 



Blue clay 



Sandstone 
Shale: 



Soft sandstone 






Hard sandstone 



Sandstone 






Yellow cIay-____ 



Blue clay 






Sandv 
"(jumbo" 



Sand x 
'-Fine sand s 
"Hardpan" 

^-Fine sand 

sS^Gravel 
^Sandstone 



SMU^l-Yellow. 
clay 






Shale 



Hard sandstone 
Shale 



Blue 

clay 



Gravel 



Sand 

Shale 
and 
sand 



Hard sandstone 



Red shale 



GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN WATONWAN AND SOUTHEASTERN BROWN COUNTIES. 
By O. E. Meinzer. 

St. James.— -Deep well drilled for city in winter of 1892-93. Authority, C. F. Loweth, civil engineer, 
St. Paul. 

Madelia. — Upper 200 feet generalized; lower portion approximate section of well drilled for C. F. Christian- 
son Milling Company in 1906, reported by engineer of mill. 

Hanska (Brown County).— Well at flouring mill. Authority, James Weisher, driller, Madelia. 



WATONWAN COUNTY. 371 

pumped at 200 gallons a minute for twenty-four hours continuously. 
The mill well at Madelia is 404 feet deep, is 6 inches in diameter at the 
bottom, and is not cased below the 324-foot level. Pumping from 
this well at the rate of 120 gallons a minute for six days is reported 
not to have lowered the water more than 2 feet. 

The quartzite in the western part of the county will furnish moder- 
ate supplies, the water coming chiefly from the less firmly cemented 
portions, as in the Butterfield railway well described above (p. 370). 
The deeper the drilling is carried into the rock the greater is the num- 
ber of water-bearing layers encountered, each of which will contribute 
something to the yield. 

Head of the water. — The water from the Cretaceous, Paleozoic, and 
Algonkian formations is lifted to essentially the same altitude as that 
from the deeper beds of the drift. In the Madelia mill well it is 
reported to rise to a level 42 feet below the surface or 985 feet above 
the sea; in the creamery well at St. James, to a level 14 feet below 
the surface, or 1,080 feet above the sea; in the two city wells at St. 
James, to a level 32 feet below the surface, or 1,053 feet above the sea; 
and in the railway well at Butterfield, within a few feet of the surface, 
or approximately 1,170 feet above the sea. Thus the head above 
sea level increases toward the west, and though in all parts of the 
county the water will come nearly to the surface it is not probable 
that flowing wells can anywhere be obtained from deep zones. 

Quality of the water. — At St. James the water from the upper sand- 
stone strata contains very large quantities of calcium and magnesium 
and is harder even than the water from the glacial drift and from the 
beds at the base of the drift, as becomes evident upon comparing 
analyses 1, 2, and 8 with 9 and 10. According to analysis 12, the 
hardness also decreases somewhat when greater depths are reached, 
but unfortunately the wells from which samples 10 and 12 were 
obtained are old, and there is therefore some uncertainty as to the 
actual zone from which the water came. At Madelia the water is 
generally less mineralized than at St. James, but here also the sand- 
stone water appears to be somewhat harder than that from the 
glacial drift (compare analyses 3, 7, and 11). 

The only analysis of quartzite water at hand is No. 13, the sample 
having been taken from the railway well at Butterfield. The water 
from this well is remarkably soft, but high in chlorides, in these 
respects resembling the soft Cretaceous water farther northwest. 
However, not all of the quartzite water is soft. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

St. James. — The city of St. James lies upon a nearly level and poorly 
drained drift plain, the valley of St. James Creek being but slightly 
lower than the town site. Hence the ground-water level is virtually 
at the surface, and large supplies are obtained from shallow wells, 



372 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

especially in wet years. The geologic section and underground water 
conditions in this locality have already been discussed (p. 370). The 
public waterworks are supplied from two drilled wells, which extend 
into the sandstone formations. Their yield and head and the quality 
of water which theyfurnish are all given elsewhere (pp. 370-371). For 
culinary and drinking purposes nearly all the people depend on very 
shallow wells, which provide water that is not so extremely hard as the 
public supply. The railway company uses water from St. James Lake. 
Madelia. — The village of Madelia is situated in part upon a terrace 
of Watonwan River and in part on the adjacent upland prairie. 
The approximate stratigraphic section to a depth of 400 feet is given 
in Plate XVI. The public supply is derived from two drilled wells, 
which are somewhat over 200 feet deep and end in a stratum of sand. 
The water is used by about 700 people, and approximately 12,000 
gallons is consumed daily. More than half of the inhabitants depend 
on private wells, which range in depth from about 20 to 130 feet, 20 
to 35 feet being common depths on the terrace, and 35 to 50 feet on 
the upland. The deepest well in the village is the 404-foot well 
recently drilled at the flouring mill. According to the analyses given 
in the table, the water from this depth is somewhat more highly 
mineralized than that from shallower sources. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

At one time nearly all farms were supplied from bored or dug wells 
ending in yellow clay or gravel above the blue bowlder clay, at 
depths not generally exceeding 30 or 40 feet. As these wells came to 
be severely tested by drought, as the amount of live stock to be 
watered increased, and as the farmers became more prosperous, 
many of them were abandoned, and deeper wells with more abundant 
and permanent supplies were drilled. However, much of this county 
is so flat and poorly drained that many very shallow wells were found 
to have a practically inexhaustible store of water even in the driest 
years, and consequently a large proportion of the farms are still 
supplied from shallow sources. 

The drilled wells range from 2 to 6 inches in diameter and from 
only a few feet to more than 300 feet in depth. By far the greater 
number end in glacial drift but several penetrate older formations. 
The 6-inch drilled wells are the type recommended. They are 
superior to the bored and dug wells not only in the quantity and 
permanence of their yield but also in being more cleanly and sanitary, 
and they are more satisfactory than the 2-inch drilled wells because 
they do not require screens and hence do not become clogged. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. • . 

The beds of sand and gravel occurring within the glacial drift and 
at its base form the most accessible and valuable source of water. 
Except in the western part of the county, still larger supplies can be 



WATONWAN COUNTY. 



373 



obtained from the sandstones that lie at somewhat greater depths, 
but the water from these deep formations, though under good head, 
will not rise above the surface, and moreover is extremely hard and 
poor for use in boilers. 

Along the western margin of the county it is sometimes necessary 
to drill into the quartzite, which will nearly always yield adequate 
supplies if penetrated to a sufficient depth. Drilling into quartzite 
should not, however, be undertaken except by those experienced in 
this kind of work, because it requires methods which one accustomed 
to drilling in softer rock may not understand. 

Mineral analyses of water in Watonwan County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Glacial drift. 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well .inches. . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron ( Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe203+Alo03). 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) - 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



30 
192 
29 



1.0 

111 
40 
17 



509 
49 



502 



40 
Large. 
31 
1.5 
4 
146 
56 
28 

.0 

473 

237 

14 

2.5 

763 



45 
144 
39 



6-10 
31 



136 

"49" 



14 



32 
103 

25 

6.5 



240 
75 
85 



1. 

233 

77 
117 



4.5 
236 
79 
120 



390 
53 



561 

603 

4 



653 

591 

2 



947 
376 
5.5 



452 



1,393 



1,302 



Intermediate 
zone. 



Cretaceous and Paleozoic sand- 
stones. 



Sioux 
quartz- 
ite. 



Depth feet. . 216± 

Diameter of well inches . . 6 and 8 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 54 

Iron (Fe) 2 

Iron and aluminum oxides (Fe2034- AI2O3) 8. 3 

Calcium (Ca) 107 

Magnesium (Mg) 29 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) : 81 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) A .0 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) j 447 

Sulphate radicle (SO*) 168 

Chlorine (CI) : 1 

Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) I - 

Total solids 677 



255 
6 



325 
6 



380(?) 
10 



58 
5 
10 
162 
47 
29 



250 
2 



810 



3 

5 

327 

118 
83 

512" 

1,026 

4 

1,853' 



324 

116 
146 

503' 

1,121 

10 



404 
10-6 
38 
2 

4.4 
162 
35 
127 

.0 
442 



1,006 



480(?) 
8 
16 
3 
9 
228 
77 
117 



1,396 



520 
23 



7 

27 

10 

532 



199 
389 
532 



1,618 



1. Railway well at St. James. October, 1895. 

2. Well at pumping station and electric-light plant at St. James. November 16, 1907. 

3. Well of the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway Company, at Madelia. April 8, 1901. 

4. Well at Odin. July 6, 1901. 

5. Railway well at Odin. October 9, 1901. 

6. Creamery well at Butterfleld. April 7, 1899. 

7. Mixture of water from the two city wells at Madelia. July 12, 1907. 

8. Well near St. James, on the farm of S. D. Whiting, SW. } sec. 9, T. 106 N., R. 31 W. July Hi, 1907. 

9. Creamery well at St. James. November 18, 1907. 

10. West citv well at St. James. November 16, 1907. 

11. Well at the C. S. Christensen Company mill at Madelia. July 16, 1907. ' 

12. East city well at St. James. July 16, 1907. 

13. Well of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway Companj-, at Butterfleld. June 8. 1900. 
Analyses 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A.Whittaker, 

chemist Minnesota state board of health. Analyses 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 13 were furnished by G. M. David- 
son, chemist Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway Company. 



374 UNDEEGBOUND WATEES OF SOUTHEEN MINNESOTA. 

WINONA COUNTY. 

By C. W. Hall and M. L. Fuller. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Winona County is among the most rugged in the State. Deep 
sharp valleys alternating with narrow but flat-topped ridges charac- 
terize the topography of the greater part of the county. The ridges 
constitute the remnants of a once continuous plateau that extended 
over the region, large areas of which are still found south of Lewiston 
and St. Charles. The upland surface has an elevation of about 1,200 
to 1,300 feet above sea level and of more than 500 feet above the 
valley of the Mississippi. The remnants of Platteville limestone in 
the southwestern corner of the count} 7 form a distinct topographic 
feature. It is more resistant to erosion than the surrounding rocks, 
and the areas in which it occurs at the surface are therefore bounded 
by more or less well-defined escarpments. In these areas sink holes 
due to the caving of underground passages are abundant. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

The surface deposits of Winona County include alluvium, terrace 
gravel, loess, and glacial drift. 

The alluvium, which occurs in the principal valleys, generally 
ranges in thickness between 25 and 100 feet, but in some localities, 
as in the vicinity of Winona, the thickness is greater. Owing to the 
frequent overflow of the streams, only the higher parts of the flood 
plains are inhabited, and hence in most instances only small demands 
are made on the alluvium for water supplies. Water can be obtained 
in moderate amounts, but the supplies are not sufficient for large 
industrial plants. 

The terraces of the valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries 
reach a maximum height of about 60 feet above the flood plain. 
Owing to the ease with which their water supplies can escape into 
the valleys, they do not yield much water to wells, except those that 
penetrate below the level of the adjacent drainage. 

The mantle of loess, which covers the uplands to a depth at few 
points exceeding 15 feet, is rarely a source of water supply, but it 
serves to collect the rainfall and to feed it to underlying rocks. 

The glacial drift is found in small patches throughout the upland 
area, but appears to form a continuous sheet only along the western 
and southwestern borders of the county. Generally it is too thin to 
be of value as a water zone, but locally considerable amounts of 
water may occur in the gravelly portions. 



WINONA' COUNTY. 375 

ROCK FORMATIONS. 

The Decorah shale is present in this county with a thickness of 
about 50 feet. It consists of green and gray shales and contains no 
water, but serves to collect the water in the overlying drift or loess, 
which supply numerous shallow wells and feed many small springs. 

Beneath the Decorah shale is a massive layer of Platteville lime- 
stone about 25 feet thick, which may yield small supplies of water 
where it is not drained by lower land in the vicinity. 

The St. Peter sandstone has a maximum thickness in this county 
of more than 90 feet. At a number of points it carries ferruginous 
layers, which, by their resistance to weathering, have given rise to 
mounds. Owing to the presence of numerous valleys, its supplies 
are not as large as in many localities, but most wells penetrating to 
the bottom of the formation will obtain sufficient water for domestic 
and farm use, but not generally enough for industrial or public 
purposes. 

The Shakopee dolomite, which is about 25 feet thick, outcrops 
below the St. Peter in the southwestern part of the county and forms 
the country rock in the higher portions of the uplands in the south- 
eastern and northern parts of the county. It carries some water in 
the joints, bedding planes, and solution passages, and its yield is 
adequate for domestic and farm supplies, but generally insufficient 
for industrial or public supplies. -/ 

The new Richmond sandstone outcrops about the margins of the 
Shakopee areas several miles back from Mississippi River and its 
tributaries. It carries a moderate amount of water which it will 
yield to rock wells on the higher uplands, but the supplies will 
generally be found insufficient except for domestic and farm uses. 

The Oneota dolomite has a maximum thickness of about 175 
feet. It constitutes the rock in the upper portion of the cliffs border- 
ing Mississippi River and its tributaries and forms the upland sur- 
face for several miles back from the streams. It contains small 
quantities of water in joints, bedding planes, and solution passages 
and furnishes the supplies for shallow wells throughout a large por- 
tion of the upland area, but fails near the edge of the bluffs where 
the water is free to escape into the valleys. 

The Jordan sandstone outcrops in the cliffs of the Mississippi 
Valley and its tributaries. Near its outcrops it furnishes little 
water, but elsewhere it is saturated with water and yields abundant 
supplies. In the wells on the uplands the water stands many feet 
below the surface. 

The St. Lawrence formation consists of green and blue shales with 
interbedded layers of limestone and sandstone. It has a total 
thickness of about 170 feet and outcrops near the base of the cliffs. 
The sandy layers contain some water but the amount is less than in 
the underlying Dresbach sandstone. 



376 



UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 



The Dresbach sandstone is about 100 feet thick. Generally it 
underlies the alluvium of the valley of the Mississippi but rises 
slightly above the valley level at Dresbach and other points in the 
southeastern part of the county. It carries considerable water and 
wherever it is below drainage level will yield large supplies to wells 
penetrating it. 

Beneath the Dresbach sandstone is a series of blue and green 
shales and white sandstone having a combined thickness of more 
than 200 feet. The shales, which form the upper portion of the 
series, serve to confine the water in the underlying sandstone, thus 
giving rise to flows in the valleys. 

Beneath the white sandstone just described there is a series of 
sandstones, shales, etc., which are predominantly red in color and 
are called the red clastic series. They yield little water and rest on 
an indefinite thickness of granite which is likewise destitute of 
available water. 

A careful record of the drillings from the city well at Winona was 
kept by the late C. H. Berry and is presented below. A general 
section of material penetrated at Winona and vicinity, reported by 
C. A. Wood, a practical well driller, is also given. The first 150 
feet consists of alluvium, below which is the shale and sandstone 
series which underlies the Dresbach sandstone. 

Section of the city artesian well at Winona. 
[Authority, C. H. Berry. This well was drilled in 1889.] 



Gray sand 

Sharp green sand 

Bluish gray sand 

Green sand containing minute shells 

Quicksand 

Coarse sand without shells 

Gravel 

Blue clay changing into white sand 

Clean coarse white sandstone 

A streak of brick-red color changing to a pink or red sandstone 

Another streak of reddish color 

"Still more red " 

Soapstone rock, sandstone at bottom '. 

Granite (entered 5 feet). 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 

75 

5 

10 

6 

4 

8 

41 

9 

252 

27 

33 

30 

10 



Depth. 



Feet. 



75 

80 
90 
96 
100 
108 
149 
158 
410 
437 
470 
500 
510 



Generalized well section at Winona. 
[Authority, C. A. Wood, driller, Winona.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Sand and gravel 

Blue shale and sandstone 

White sandstone 

Red sandstone 

White sandstone 

Blue shale 
ranitic rocks (entered). 



Feet. 
150 

50 
150 

15 
125 

16 



Feet. 
150 
200 
350 
365 
490 
506 



WINONA COUNTY. 377 

UNDERGROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 

Head of the water. — Owing to the great relief, the head of the 
water relative to the surface varies. On the upland the water from 
the deep zones stands far below the surface, but in the valley of the 
Mississippi flows can be obtained from these same zones where they 
are not exposed by erosion. 

Quality of the water. — There is little difference in the chemical 
quality of the water from the different zones except that the water 
from the red sandstone series is somewhat harder and has a higher 
content of chlorine than that from other formations. In general 
the water is moderately mineralized, the principal constituents being 
calcium, magnesium, and the bicarbonate radicle. (See the accom- 
panying table, p. 279, and also PI. V.) 

Springs. — There are numerous springs along the lower parts of 
the valley cliffs. They generally emerge from sandstones or lime- 
stones immediately above a layer of shale, many of those issuing 
from the limestone being large. On the uplands the springs are less 
numerous and smaller, but are not rare where limestones exist near 
the surface. In sec. 15, T. 107 N., R. 8 W., near Minnesota City, 
a spring was developed which some years ago attracted considerable 
attention as a medicinal water. a The composition of the water is 
given in analysis 2 in the table on page 379. 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Winona. — The city of Winona is built on an island formed between 
the main channel of Mississippi River and Lake Winona, which is a 
nearly abandoned channel of the stream. The general level of the 
island is only a few feet above the high-water mark of the river. 
The alluvium that constitutes the island has a depth, according to 
well records, of 150 feet and consists of gravel, sand, clay, "hardpan," 
and other flood-plain debris. Wherever sufficiently porous it is 
water bearing, the ordinary shallow wells of the city procuring their 
supplies at an average depth of 30 or 35 feet. Occasionally a well 
is sunk to a depth sufficient to penetrate the underlying Paleozoic 
formations, which yield water that is wholesome, but considerably 
harder than that from the Mississippi. (See analyses 3 to 8 in the 
table.) A number of the deep wells at Winona overflow at the 
surface. The best supplies, both in quantity and quality, are 
obtained at depths not exceeding 350 feet. (See the well sections 
given above, and also Pis. IV and V.) 

The public supply of Winona is derived from several sources — 
(1) two flowing wells over 500 feet deep, obtaining water from the 
shale and sandstone series which underlies the Dresbach sandstone 
and possibly from the red clastic series; (2) two cement-lined dug 

a Winchell, N. IT., Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 1, 1882, p. 264. 



3*7 8 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

wells 60 feet in diameter and 28 to 38 feet deep, deriving their 
water from the alluvium and from the infiltration from the river; 
(3) an emergency intake from the river, used only in case of fire. 
The capacity of the artesian wells is calculated at 600 gallons a 
minute. A test of the water from the different sources shows the 
following relative composition: 

Corn-position of public supply at Winona. 
[Parts per million.] 

River 

intake. 



Artesian 


Infiltra- 


well. 


tion well. 


395 


175 


76 


29 


07 


45 


1 


.5 



Total carbonates (alkalinity) (as CaCOs) 395 175 155 

Sulphates (S0 4 ) 76 29 23 

Chlorine(Cl) 07 45 29 

Iron (Fe) 1 .5 Trace. 

The system has not proved altogether satisfactory, the artesian 
water being hard and the infiltration well water liable to contamina- 
tion. Hence a plan is at present (August, 1908) under consideration 
to install a filtration plant and obtain a supply drawn wholly from 
the river. 

On the Doty and Reinke sheep farm north of the city a flowing 
well, which has a head of 8 feet and a yield of about 50 gallons a 
minute, is used to operate a turbine that pumps the water to higher 
levels. The use of turbines together with rams promises to add 
greatly to the usefulness of flowing wells by distributing the water 
and lifting it to points higher than the head. The well of George 
Fifield, about 3^ miles above Winona, is only 280 feet deep. The 
water, which is known as "Fifield's Artesian Mineral Water," is 
sold in the city and shipped to other points. 

St. Charles. — The public supply at St. Charles is derived from a 
well 942 feet deep, which taps the Jordan, Dresbach, and basal 
Cambrian sandstones. The water stands about 150 feet below the 
surface. An analysis is given in the table (p. 379). 

Lewiston and Utica. — The villages of Lewiston and Utica draw 
their permanent supplies from the Jordan sandstone, which is about 
300 feet below the surface. Many private wells are sunk into the 
New Richmond. 

Boiling Stone. — Most of the people of Rolling Stone use the public 
supply, which is derived from a drilled well 340 feet deep. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The strongest water zones are the Jordan, Dresbach, and basal 
Cambrian sandstones. The water in the basal Cambrian sandstones 
is confined beneath a layer of shale and has sufficient head to rise 



WINONA COUNTY. 



879 



above the surface in the deepest valleys. As the red series yields 
only small quantities of hard water, drilling should always be dis- 
continued when it is encountered. 

Mineral analyses of water in Winona County. 

[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle 

(HC0 3 ) 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids 



22 



35 



24 



60 
32 

5.2 

340 
4.6 
4.7 

289 



73 
30 

3.6 

376 
5.7 
.3 
316 



18 
323 



55 
24 

7.6 

291 
8.2 
5.9 

260 



28 



323 
24 
21 

327 



217 
53 



34 



262 
57 



313 1 303 



300 
19 
12 

284 



70 
"2.9 

"ie" 
4.3 
321 



6.7 

266 



90 
1.3 
8.6 

82 

32 

18 

378 

30 

27 
392 



120 
9.5 
8.5 

78 

19 

7.7 

331 
7.1 
7.9 

292 



350 

16 

.7 
46 
21 

5.4 

227 
22 
2.5 
219 



13. 


14. 


15. 


16. 


17. 


82 


28 


500 


942 


942 


9.9 


10 


10 


11 


18 


1.1 


1.5 


.2 


1.0 


.8 


54 


69 


08 


84 


99 


26 


29 


28 


14 


24 


4.3 


5.6 


13 


9.8 


11 


266 


339 


325 


317 


280 


26 


21 


14 


6.5 


74 


20 


4.4 


21 


15 


18 


255 


314 


314 


298 


407 



21. 



24. 



Depth feet. 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) . 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle 

(HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Total solids .• 



376 
12 



60 



350 
8.3 
4.0 

51 
18 

41 



350 



375 325 



193 183 
89 1-09 
70 I 64 

405 388 



193 
12 



630 
42 
54 

519 



301 

78 



462 
5.1 



37 
336 



462 
14 



85 
29 

50 

386 
56 

47 
471 



1. Spring at the quarry at Stockton. 

2. Spring of F. C. Bryan near Minnesota City. October, 1881. Hydrogen sulphide and a trace of lithium 
were also reported. 

3. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Winona. March, 1905. 

4. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Winona. March, 1889. 

5. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Winona." March, 1890. 

6. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Winona. June, 1900. 

7. Well at the Chicago and Northwestern Railway shops in Winona. February, 1904. 

8. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway well at Dakota. November, 1881. 

9. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at St. Charles. September, 1887. 

10. Creamery well in St. Charles. May, 1904. 

11. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at St. Charles. November, 1888. 

12. Village well at Lewiston. December, 1900. 

13. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Stockton. August, 1892. 

14. Chicago and Northwestern Railway well at Stockton. June, 1892. 

15. City well at St. Charles. Januarv, 1896. 

16. City well at St. Charles. December, 1895. 

17. City well at St. Charles. December, 1906. 

18. Well at the Winona Malting Company brewery. 

19. Well at the Park brewerv in Winona. 

20. Well at the Peter Bub brewery. 

21. Artesian well at Winona. April, 1906. 

22. C. W. Miller's artesian well at Winona. March, 1905. 

23. City well at Winona, a mixture from the depths of 36 and 462 feet. 

24. City well at Winona. 1903. 

Analyses 12 and 17 were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. S. Spaulding. Analyses 1, 
4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, and 16 were furnished by G. M. Davidson, chemist Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
Company. Analyses 3, 6, 21, and 22 were furnished by G. N. Prentiss, chemist Chicago, Milwaukee and 
St. Paul Railway Company. Analyses 10, 15, and 23 were furnished by the Dearborn Drug and Chemical 
Company, Chicago. Analysis 2 was made by W. A. Noyes for the geological survey of Minnesota; 
analysis 20 was made by Wahl & Hennis; and analysis 24 was made by H. C. Carel. 



380 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

WRIGHT COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Wright County can be divided into three physiographic provinces' 1 — 
(1) the irregular morainic tract occupying most of the county, (2) 
the gently undulating area lying in the south-central part, and (3) 
the level plain bordering Clearwater and Mississippi rivers along the 
northern margin of the county. The Mississippi has cut a narrow 
gorge into this plain, and its tributaries have accomplished a small 
amount of erosion, but the surface of the county is still imperfectly 
drained and remains covered with numerous lakes and swamps. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — There are two distinct types of bowlder clay, the 
blue and the red. The red clay occurs chiefly in the northeastern 
part of the county, but has been found as far southwest as Waverly. 
Where both are present the blue lies above the red. The red is 
apparently derived from the rocks in the Lake Superior region, and 
the blue comes for the most part from the Cretaceous formations to 
the west. These two varieties of drift have been discussed by the 
state geologists, N. H. Winchell 6 and Warren Upham. c In addi- 
tion to the sand and gravel that is interbedded with the bowlder clay, 
extensive deposits lie at the surface, forming the level plain referred 
to above. 

The glacial drift ranges in thickness from a scant layer to perhaps 
about 400 feet. It reaches its greatest development in the central 
and southwestern parts and is somewhat thinner in the northern and 
northeastern, but there are considerable variations within short dis- 
tances. The following specific data will give some conception of the 
thickness in the different localities: (1) In the vicinity of Cokato 
depths of 150 to 300 feet have been reached without passing out of 
the drift; (2) in the village of Howard Lake one well is reported to 
have struck rock at a depth of 135 feet and several others in the 
same district at depths of 170 to 218 feet, but on the other hand 
many wells in this region end in drift at depths of more than 200 
feet; (3) at Waverly "rock" was encountered in one well at 190 feet 
below the surface, but in the mill well in the same village the drift 
deposit may be deeper; (4) near Delano (in the NE. | sec. 24, 
T. 118 N., R. 35 W.) sandstone was found at a depth of 211 feet, 
but there are deeper wells in the locality which do not reach this for- 

a Upham, Warren, Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, PI. 41. 
b Fifth Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, 1876, pp. 150-174; Sixth Ann. Rept., 1877, 
pp. 84-87. 
c Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, pp. 254-256. 



WRIGHT COUNTY. 381 

illation; (5) in the Buffalo railway well 385 feet may be drift; (6) 
in the vicinity of Mississippi River and Crow River near its mouth 
there are great and abrupt variations in the thickness of the surface 
deposits, the maximum probably being at least 300 feet. 

Yield of water. — The numerous thick beds of sand and gravel pro- 
vide ample and permanent supplies, and where they lie at the surface, 
as they do throughout a considerable section of this county, they 
commonly yield large quantities of water even to very shallow wells. 

Head of the water. — Flowing wells are found in a number of localities 
(PI. IV) and could without doubt be secured in other restricted tracts, 
such as stream valleys and depressions partly filled by lakes. The 
chances of obtaining flows are always best in low districts that lie 
close to high morainic belts. 

In the following areas the water from the drift will rise above the 
surface: (1) Along the eastern and southern margins of Buffalo Lake 
and on the low ground southwest of this lake, the supply coming 
from sand and gravel beds at various depths. In the village of Buf- 
falo the water is lifted fully 30 feet above the level of the lake. 
(2) Along both branches of Crow River and some of their affluents. 
A number of scattered flowing wells with slight head have been 
obtained here, and probably many more could be had on the lowest 
ground bordering these streams. (3) On the west side of Cokato 
Lake, north of the village. This is a small area and the wells thus 
far drilled are not more than 100 feet deep. 

Flows are also obtained from the surface deposits in the valley of 
the Mississippi. 

Quality of the water. — The mineral constituents of the water from 
the drift consist chiefly of calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonates, 
only small amounts of sodium, potassium, sulphates, and chlorides 
being present. This water therefore has a considerable temporary 
hardness (which can in large measure be removed by heating), but 
will not deposit much hard scale in boilers. 

The water in this county is similar to that from the deeper portions 
of the drift farther west, but is less highly mineralized than the shal- 
low drift water in that region. Thus there is both a horizontal and 
a vertical variation in the composition of the water, the mineraliza- 
tion (especially the content of calcium, magnesium, and sulphates) 
decreasing from west to east and from the surface downward. 

CRETACEOUS (?) ROCKS. 

About 15 miles beyond the northwestern edge of Wright County, 
in southern Stearns County, there is an exposure of shales, etc., in 
which Cretaceous fossils have been identified, but it is not known 



a KIoos, J. H., A Cretaceous basin in the Sauk Valley, Minnesota: Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 3, 1872, 
pp. 17-26. 



382 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

that deposits of this age exist at any point within the county. Two 
outcrops of sandstone and conglomerate are described in the report 
of the state survey,® one on Crow River east of St. Michael and the 
other on North Branch north of Howard Lake (sec. 8, T. 119 N., R. 
27 W.).- The suggestion is made by the state geologist that these 
may be Cretaceous in age, but there is no proof that they are so. 
It has already been mentioned that a number of wells in the vicinity 
of Howard Lake and Waverly enter "rock," and a list of such wells 
is given below. This rock, which appears from the drillers' descrip- 
tion to be light-colored water-bearing sandstone, may be the same 
formation as that which forms the outcrops, but this, too, is uncer- 
tain. The blue shales encountered in drilling along the Mississippi 
are certainly not Cretaceous. 

PALEOZOIC AND OLDER FORMATIONS. 

Description. — Most of Wright County is underlain by stratified 
formations which are Paleozoic and perhaps in part pre-Paleozoic in 
age. Their combined thickness is probably great in the southeast, 
but much less in the northwest. Because of the dip of these strata 
and their apparent tendency to change in character and thickness 
from one locality to another, great caution is necessary in the inter- 
pretation of well sections. 

In the vicinity of Elk River, a village situated on the opposite 
bank of the Mississippi, numerous deep wells have been drilled, and 
these show the stratigraphic succession below the surface deposits to 
consist of blue shale, white water-bearing sandstone, and red shale 
and sandstone nearly destitute of water. The section in this locality 
is shown in Plate XVII. Both shale and sandstone are so hard that 
they do not require casing; in this respect they differ from most of 
the Cretaceous strata of southern Minnesota. The total thickness of 
the red clastic series is not known. 

The same succession of blue shale, white sandstone, and red rock 
has been found in Monticello and at a number of points in the eastern 
extremity of this county. At Anoka drilling has gone to a depth of 
420 feet without reaching the red clastic series; this fact indicates the 
general thickening of the overlying Paleozoic strata toward the south- 
east. Near Dayton, which is situated at the confluence of Mississippi 
and Crow rivers, sandstone was encountered in several wells at a 
depth of about 50 feet below the river level, and on the opposite side 
of the Mississippi limestone, which probably lies higher in the series, 
is reported 100 feet below the upland level. 

At Buffalo the following section is reported for the railway well. 
The upper 386 feet is probably glacial drift. 

a Final Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minnesota, vol. 2, 1885, pp. 250-251. 



WEIGHT COUNTY. 



383 



Well section at Buffalo. 
[Authority, Joseph Greeninger, driller, Anoka.) 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Clay 

Sand 

Blue bowlder clay 

Sand 

Quicksand 

Sand and gravel 

Sand and large stones 

Clean sand 

Sandstone 



Feet. 

35 

2 

245 

37 

6 

31 

30 

9 

158 



Feet. 
35 
37 
282 
319 
325 
356 
386 
395 
553 



Light-colored water-bearing rock, which was encountered in the 
southern part of the county, has already been alluded to as a possible 
Cretaceous formation. The following table gives a list of wells in 
which this rock was found : 

Rock wells in southern Wright County. 



Owner and location. 



Depth to 
rock. 



Depth rock 

was 
penetrated. 



J. Freden, NE. J sec. 24, T. 118 N., R. 25 W. . . 

Doctor O'Hair, Waverly 

Fleiner, Howard Lake 

J. McKee, NE.Jsec. 34, T. 119 N., R. 27 W... 
F. Birkholz, NW. \ sec. 27, T. 118 N., R. 27 W 
C. Dangers, SW. J sec. 15, T. 118 N., R. 27 W. 



Feet. 
211 
190 
135 
218 
169 
170 



Feet. 



A few miles north of Wright County the granitic rocks come to the 
surface and form numerous outcrops in Sherburne and Stearns 
counties; in Meeker County they have been encountered in several 
wells. These facts indicate that in the northwestern part of Wright 
County the granite is not far below the surface, but the depth probably 
increases rapidly toward the southeast. 

Yield of water. — The data given above show that water-bearing 
sandstone (perhaps belonging to more than one formation) occurs 
throughout the southeastern part of the county and may extend to 
the northwestern margin. It has been encountered at depths rang- 
ing from 80 to 400 feet and in all wells yielded generously. Neither 
the red clastic series, which lies beneath the white sandstone in the 
eastern part of the county, nor the granite, which may be reached in 
deep drilling in the northern part, is of any value as a source of water. 

Head of the water. — The sandstone will produce flows in the valley ^ 
and on the lower terraces of the Mississippi but not on the uplands 
(PL IV). In the village of Elk River the water is lifted about 60 
feet above the river level, or 904 feet above the sea, and at Monticello 
it rises about 918 feet above sea level, a considerable height above the 
river, 



WEIGHT COUNTY. 385 

Paleozoic sandstone, yield large quantities of water. The well which 
furnishes the public supply is 8 inches in diameter and 237 feet deep. 
The water rises to a level 5 feet below the top of the well, which is 
about 30 feet above the river, or approximately 918 feet above the sea, 
and pumping at the rate of 275 gallons a minute for five hours con- 
tinuously is reported to lower this level only 2 feet. As can be seen 
from the analysis in the accompanying table (p. 387), the water is only 
moderately hard and will not form much hard scale in boilers. About 
25,000 gallons is consumed daily, but most of the people still use water 
from private wells. 

Howard Lake. — The glacial drift has a considerable thickness 
and contains water-bearing deposits of sand and gravel. Beneath 
the drift there is a light-colored water-bearing sandstone which is 
reported to have been penetrated at 135 feet below the surface, 
though generally occurring at a greater depth. The public supply is 
pumped from the lake without filtering, through an intake which is 
about 800 feet from the shore. This water has a relatively low total 
hardness, and is used by more than one-half of the people, approx- 
imately 25,000 gallons being consumed daily. The glacial drift and 
underlying rock will yield ample supplies of water that is only 
moderately hard. 

CoJcato. — Drilling to a depth of 185 feet at Cokato has revealed 
nothing but glacial drift, as is shown by the following section of a 
well at the canning factory: 

Section at Cokato. 
[Authority, John Hammarlund, driller, Cokato.] 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Yellow bowlder clay 

Blue, bowlder clay 

Sand, thin (a little water) 

Blue bowlder clay 

Sand ( water) 

Blue bowlder clay (penetrated 55 feet). 



Feet. 

78 

50 
2 



Feet. 

78 

128 
130 



It is altogether probable that there are other water-bearing beds 
at greater depths. The public waterworks are supplied from a drilled 
well 3 inches in diameter and 125 feet deep, which ends with a screen 
in a bed of sand reported to be at least 6 feet thick. The water rises 
to a level about 45 feet below the surface or 1,020 feet above sea level. 
It is moderately hard but has not much permanent hardness, as the 
analysis in the table (p. 387) shows. Most of the people use water 
from private drilled wells, none of which is much more than 100 feet 
deep. The well at the canning factory, which is supplied from the 
sand layer 128 feet below the surface, has been tested at 15 gallons a 
60920°— wsp 256—11 25 



386 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

minute. The head and quality of the water are similar to those of the 
village well. 

'Wavaii/. — The following section was reported for the well at Adam 
Berker's flouring mill, which is the deepest well drilled in the locality 
about Waverly: 

Section at Waverly (Berker's mill). 

[Authorities, William Jestus, driller, Howard hake, and Adam Berker, owner of the mill, Waverly.] 



Yellow and blue clay 

" Hardpan" 

Yellow sand (water) 

Red clay 

Coarse yellow sand (water) (entered 19 feet). 



Feel. 
117 



85 
•J 15 



Feet. 
117 
126 
210 
426 



In the table (p. 387) will be found analyses of the water from this 
well and also of water from Doctor O'Hair's well, which is 197 feet. 
The public waterworks are supplied from the lake, but all the people 
depend on private wells, most of which are of the 2-inch drilled type 
and have an average depth of about 125 feet. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

The most common type of farm wells found in this region are the 
2-inch or 2$-inch drilled wells. These range from about 40 to 300 
feet in depth, their average depth being slightly more than 100 feet 
in the southern part of the county and somewhat less in the northern. 
Nearly all stop in the surface deposits and are finished with screens. 
In the south the screens are liable to become clogged after several 
years of service, but farther north they seldom do. As a rule the 
water is harder in the southern than in the northern part and there 
appears to be a relation between the hardness of the water and the 
tendency of the screens to become incrusted. 

Other types of farm wells are the driven, bored, or dug and drilled 
wells of larger diameter. In the past the bored and dug wells were 
the prevailing kind, but they are now gradually being replaced by 
the drilled types. Where 6-inch wells are not to be pumped faster 
than the rate at which a windmill operates they can be successfully 
finished with open ends, thus obviating all difficulties with screens. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

The surface deposits contain large supplies of water that is only 
moderately hard, and in low areas they may giYe rise to flows with 
slight pressure. 

The southeastern part of the county, and perhaps the entire county, 
is underlain by water-bearing sandstone, which has been encountered 



YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY. 



387 



at depths ranging from 80 to 400 feet, and which will usually yield 
large quantities of water of about the same hardness as that from the 
surface deposits. Near the Mississippi the water from this sandstone 
is under sufficient pressure to rise to a level about 900 feet above the 
sea, and in the valley it will therefore be lifted above the surface. 

The red clastic series and the granitic rocks, which occur at greater 
depths, are of no value as sources of water, and should not be pene- 
trated in drilling. 

Mineral analyses of water in Wright Comity. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches. . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Iron and aluminum oxides 

(Fe 2 03+Al 2 03) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium 

(Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3).. 

Sulphate radicle (SO.i) 

Chloride (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NOa) 

Total solids 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, 
etc.). 



1.6 
102 
30 



498 

31 

1 

47l' 



89 
2 
20 
1.8 

1.0 
51 
37 



517 
10 
3 

469' 



125 
3 

28 
.6 

2.4 
90 
34 

19 
.0 
468 
40 
1.5 
.0 
455 



170 
29 
2 

208' 



Undetermined. 



20 
Trace. 

2 

57 
25 



293 
12 

2 



197 
2 
11 
.3 

2 
104 
43 



527 

37 

2 

485' 



444 

2 

9.2 

.4 

1.0 
76 
37 



317 
124 

1 



11 
101 
39 



492 
i3 
5 



D res- 
bach (?) 
sand- 
stone. 



1.0 
55 
21 



208 

20 

2 



1. Village wells at Delano. October 8. 1907. 

2. Well of .lames Engstrom near Buffalo, SE. \ sec. 19, T. 120 N., R. 25 W. October 11, 1907. 

3. Village well at Cokato. October 9, 1907. 

4. Well of Dr. M. A. Lowe at Buffalo. October 11, 1907. 

5. Village well at Monticello. October 11, 1907. 

6. Well of Doctor O'Hair at Waverly. October 9, 1907. 

7. Well at Berker's flouring mill at Waverly. October 9, 1907. 

8. Railway well at Buffalo. Analysis furnished by C W. Drew, chemist. 

9. Flowing well at Blanchett's Hotel at Elk River, Sherburne County. October 11, 1907. 

All of the above analyses, except No. 8, were made for the United States Geological Survey by II. A. 
Whittaker, chemist Minnesota state board of health. 

YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SURFACE FEATURES. 

Most of Yellow Medicine County is occupied by a plain, which in 
general is flat and featureless and descends very gradually toward the 
northeast. Immediately west of the county is the Coteau des 
Prairies, or prairie plateau, which' stands approximately 500 feet 
above this plain; and in the western part of the county the surface 
slopes with relative abruptness from one level to the other. On the 
northeast the plain is interrupted by the Minnesota Valley, here about 
150 feet deep. The county can thus be divided into three physio- 
graphic provinces — the slope, the lowland plain, and the valley (PI. I). 



388 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

The slope has an inclination sufficient to allow the water to drain 
oif readily and to do effective erosion; hence it has become dissected 
by many ravines or small canyons. The descent of the plain is much 
more gradual, and its streams flow sluggishly through shallow valleys 
with few tributaries, thus leaving extensive interstreain areas poorly 
drained but too flat to contain many lakes. The valleys of these 
streams are not in topographic adjustment with the Minnesota Valley. 
They have a slight gradient down to the part where, as they approach 
the river valley, they descend steeply to its level. 

The general monotony of the topography is relieved by several 
parallel morainal ridges which extend across the county with a north- 
west-southeast trend. These are outlined on Plate II. 

SURFACE DEPOSITS. 

Description. — Glacial drift covers the entire county except parts 
of the Minnesota Valley and a few small areas in other places where 
older formations come to the surface (PI. II). In the Minnesota 
Valley, near the granite outcrop midway between Canby and Clark- 
field, and in the vicinity of Echo and the region south and southwest 
of that village, the drift commonly has a thickness of less than 50 
feet, but near the southwestern corner it attains a maximum of 
more than 300 feet. Over most of the county it is not less than 50 
and not more than 200 feet thick, but because of the irregular sur- 
face on which it rests it may range within these limits in the same 
locality. The average thickness for the county is at least 125 feet. 

Yield of water. — The sand and gravel deposits, which constitute 
the water-bearing members of the drift, vary greatly within short 
distances and their yield varies likewise. In general, however, 
the probabilities of finding an adequate supply increase with the depth 
of the drift. Where the drift is thick, it will usually afford enough 
water for ordinary purposes, but where it is thin it does not every- 
where contain a bed that will yield sufficient even for farm use. 
The 4-inch village well at Wood Lake, 186 feet deep, is pumped at 
the rate of 25 gallons a minute, and the village well at Canby, which 
draws from a depth of less than 100 feet, is pumped at the rate of 
125 gallons a minute without lowering the water level greatly. 

Head of the water. — Throughout the greater part of the county 
the water rises nearly but not quite to the surface, but near the 
western end several flowing wells are found. There is, however, 
no large or important area in which flows can be obtained. Within 
a few miles of the Minnesota the head is lowered by seepage into 
the valley, and here the water commonly stands 60 to 110 feet below 
the surface. There are many springs in the Minnesota Valley and 
along the streams that descend from the coteau, but very few else- 
where in the county. 



YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY. 389 

Quality of the water. — According to the analyses given in the 
accompanying table (p. 393), all the water from the surface deposits 
is hard. No. 4, which is perhaps the most typical of the ordinary 
glacial-drift waters, contains large amounts of calcium, magnesium, 
and sulphates and will produce hard scale in boilers; Nos. 2 and 3 
are still richer in these substances and are unfit for boiler use. 

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. 

Description. — The Cretaceous is absent in much of the eastern and 
central sections of the county, where the granite lies immediately 
beneath the drift, but in the west it is believed to be present as a con- 
tinuous deposit. It varies greatly in thickness within short dis- 
tances, owing both to the uneven contour of the granitic surface on 
which it rests and to the irregularities of its own upper surface. It 
has a maximum thickness of at least 225 feet, but its average thick- 
ness is not great. It consists of alternate strata of soft gray-blue 
shale ("soapstone") and of sand or sandstone, the shale greatly 
predominating. In many localities the sandstone is absent and in 
some it is represented by beds of quicksand. 

Shale has been encountered in numerous wells in the vicinity of 
Clarkfield, and has also been found at many localities in the region 
including Echo, Wood Lake, and Hanley Falls (PI. XVIII). The 
thicker series of the western part of the county is represented by the 
Canby section given in Plate XII. 

Yield of water. — The Cretaceous supplies a number of good wells 
in this county, but it is not a reliable source of water. It may be 
absent, may consist entirely of impervious shale, or may contain 
no water-bearing beds except quicksand, from which the water 
can not readily be separated. Moreover, it is so irregular in distribu- 
tion and thickness that it is impossible to predict with confidence 
the probabilities of obtaining water from it in any given locality. 

Head of the water.— The water from the Cretaceous (and the sub- 
jacent granitic residuum) is raised by artesian pressure to about the 
same level as that from the glacial drift. It generally comes nearly 
to the surface, but would probably not flow anywhere in the county. 
When the village well at Hanley Falls was completed the water 
rose within 10 feet of the surface, but at present it stands 40 feet 
below. 

Quality of the water. — The water from this source generally contains 
only small quantities of calcium and magnesium, and hence is a 
truly soft water. In exceptional places, however, it is hard, probably 
owing to the mingling of water from the drift. It holds large amounts 
of alkali sulphates and chlorides, the latter commonly being present 
in sufficient quantities to give a distinctly saline taste. Analyses 
5 and 6 in the accompanying table represent typical waters from this 
zone. 



390 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

ARCHEAN ROCKS. 

Description. — Outcrops of granitic rock are found (1) over large 
areas in the Minnesota Valley, especially in the vicinity of Granite 
Falls; .(2) in a number of small areas south of Echo and Wood Lake, 
near the Redwood County line; and (3) in a small area midway 
between Canby and Clarkfield (PI. III). In the country surrounding 
the exposures the granite is frequently encountered in drilling, and 
throughout the county it is not generally so much as 300 feet below 
the surface. At Echo it occurs locally within a few feet of the 
surface, but is generally at greater depth; at Wood Lake drilling has 
gone down 186 feet without reaching it; at Hanley Falls it is probably 
at a depth of about 250 feet; near Granite Falls it lies at 150 feet 
or less below the upland surface; and in the vicinity of Clarkfield it 
has been struck at depths of about 200 feet. In the western part 
of the county it is farther below the surface. At Canby white clay 
was found at 325 feet and granite at 385 feet. 

As in other counties, the upper portion is generally much weathered, 
especially where it has been protected from glacial erosion by over- 
lying Cretaceous sediments. A white clay, described in the reports on 
Redwood and Renville counties (pp. 309 and 316), is often the first 
warning that the granite is at hand. It is a decomposition product 
of the granite, but in some places was probably assorted and rede- 
posited by water, as at Canby, where 60 feet of this material is 
reported immediately above the granite. Aside from the white clay, 
there is frequently a large amount of true residuum immediately 
above the unaltered rock, and in some places between the rock and the 
white clay. At the top it may be a soft clay, but downward it gradu- 
ally merges into the hard undecomposed granite. It has brilliant 
colors — red, brown, yellow, green, etc. — which can not fail to attract 
the notice of drillers; the meaning of its presence can not be mistaken. 
Moreover, it may have a silvery appearance, given by the flakes of 
mica or allied minerals which it contains, and it is usually granular, 
owing to the quartz that was included in the granite and remains 
unchanged in the residual clay. The drill may also meet hard 
"glassy" layers, which are the quartzose bands of the original gneissic 
rock remaining unaltered while the softer minerals have decayed. 

Yield of water. — In rare instances water is found in seams of grit 
associated with the granitic residuum, but the probabilities are against 
obtaining an adequate supply after the white clay or ordinary altered 
granite have been entered. The village well at Hanley Falls ends in 
what app?ars to be the contact zone between the Cretaceous shale 
and the gianitic residuum. It is 5 inches in diameter and has been 
pumped for twenty-four hours continuously at the rate of 40 gallons 
a minute. The experience at Canby is more common; here both the 
white clay and the granite failed to furnish water. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE XVIII 



_l I 
< 

h 1000 u 



Feet above Clarkfield 

sea level No. 1 



Clarkfield 
No. 2 



Hanley Falls 



Wood Lake 



Posen Twp. 



Echo 
No. 1 



Echo 
No. 2 



— Sr^Er -Blue clay 



h:i 



900 — fc z-L - 



Yellow clay 



Sand and blue clay 

Blue shale 

.Green shale 

'White shale 



Granite 



Yellow clay 
Blue clay 



Blue shale 



White sh 
Granite 



S Blue clay 



Yellow clay 



Sand and gravel 



H: Blue clay or shale 



Yellow clay 



Blue clay 



Blue clay and sand 



Sand 



Dark-colored shale 



Red. brown, and 

white shale 
^Sand 



55J 



Yellow clay 



Blue clay 



Clay, etc.// 



Clay 



GEOLOGIC SECTIONS IN EASTERN YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY. 
By O. E. Meinzer. 

Wood Lake.-Generalized section to depth that drilling has been carried in this 

IcvmIc, , V1 pi!fp™ Trramshin —Well south of Wood Lake, in sec. 11, T. 113 N., R. 39 W. 

Clarkfield No. 2.-Unsuccessful well drilled in this village for J. E. Afden; approx,- g»m 1< 71 Approximate section at creamery, 

mate. Reported by George Olson, driller, Clarkfield. Echo No. 2.— Section at east end of village. . . 

Hanley Falls.-Generafized section. Somewhat conflicting records have been The last three sections are given on the authority of J. P. Peterem, driller, Echo, 
reported. 



Clarkfield No. 1.— Village well; approximate. Authority, J. M. Haubris, driller, 
Montevideo. 



YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY. 391 

WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES. 

Granite Falls. — The city of Granite Falls is situated on the flood 
plain of Minnesota River about 150 feet below the upland level. At 
this point the river has cut its valley down to the gsanite and has 
developed rapids where it crosses the granite ledge. The rock is so 
near the surface that only very meager supplies of underground 
water can be obtained, but there are a few shallow wells ending in the 
alluvium above the granite. The analysis given in the table repre- 
sents water from a very shallow well owned by the city and used 
largely for culinary purposes. Most of the water for the public sup- 
ply is taken from Minnesota River and passed through a crude filter; 
but the reservoir into which the filtered water discharges also acts as 
a well, and thus a small amount of underground water is mingled 
with that from the river. The supply is used extensively for all 
purposes, and about 40,000 gallons are consumed daily. 

Canby. — The best water-bearing beds at Canby are found in the 
glacial drift, which is here 100 feet deep. The sandy strata of the 
Cretaceous are so fine grained that there is difficulty in finishing wells 
in them. The well which supplies the public waterworks was drilled 
to a depth of 426 feet and entered granite, but at present it draws its 
water from sand between the depths of 70 and 100 feet (PL XII). 
At the time the well was visited' (August, 1907), the water overflowed 
into the manhole, which is about 18 feet deep. When it was pumped 
at the rate of 125 gallons a minute it stopped overflowing, but water 
has been taken from it at this rate for sixteen hours continuously with- 
out lowering the water below the pumping limit. In dry seasons, 
however, the water does not rise to the manhole, and pumping at 
the above rate will lower it to a level from which it can not be lifted 
by suction. The water is hard, and hence poor for boiler feed. It is 
not used extensively for household purposes, but supplies the public 
schools, a total of about 10,000 gallons being consumed daily. The 
boiler water for the railway and mill is taken from the river. 

Olarhfield. — At Clarkfield the granite lies at a depth of about 200 
feet, above which there is Cretaceous shale and glacial drift, the latter 
being practically the only water-bearing formation (PI. XVIII). 
No satisfactory boiler supplies have been found. The soft-water 
zone that occurs at Dawson and Hanley Falls has not been encoun- 
tered here. 

The public waterworks are supplied from a well which was drilled 
to a depth of 197 feet but obtains its water from a bed of sand nearer 
the surface. The water rises within 40 feet of the top of the well, but 
because of the fine sand which clogs the screen the yield is said to 
be limited to 13 gallons a minute. The water is not used for domestic 
purposes and very little is consumed except in case of fire. Virtually 
all the people depend on private wells, which are dug, bored, or 



392 UNDERGROUND WATERS OF SOUTHERN MINNESOTA. 

drilled, and range in general between 20 and 140 feet in depth. 
The deepest penetrate the sand beneath the blue bowlder clay and 
provide adequate supplies. 

Echo. — In the locality about Echo the granite lies near the surface, 
having been reached at depths of 19 feet at the east end of the village, 
58 feet at the public pumping station, and 171 feet at the creamery, 
where 31 feet of shale intervenes between it and the drift. The well 
that supplies the public waterworks is 12 feet in diameter and 53 
feet deep. It passes through yellow and blue bowlder clay and ends 
in gravel, from which the water rises to a level 35 feet below the 
surface. Its yield is not great and is easily affected by drought. 
The water is extremely hard, as is shown by the analysis given in 
the table (p. 393), and is not used for domestic purposes, very little 
behig consumed except in case of fire. The private wells have an 
average depth of 20 or 25 feet and furnish small quantities of water, 
which is also very hard. An analysis of the water from a typical 
shallow well is given in the table. The mill is provided from an 
open well, and the creamery from a drilled well 150 feet deep. 

Wood Lake. — The glacial drift at Wood Lake has been penetrated 
to a depth of 186 feet without reaching shale or granite, but a short 
distance south of the village granite has been struck at 175 feet. 
The well which supplies the public waterworks passes through yellow 
and blue bowlder clay and terminates with a screen at a depth of 
186 feet, in a bed of sand from which the water rises within 36 feet 
of the surface. The test of the well has already been given (p. 388). 
The analysis in the table (p. 393) shows that the water is hard. Up 
to the present time it has not been used for domestic purposes. The 
private wells include shallow open wells and deeper drilled ones, all 
ending in drift. 

Hartley Falls. — In the locality of Hanley Falls the glacial drift is 
underlain by blue shale, below which there is brown, red, and white- 
clay or shale. The supplies for the waterworks, the creamery, and 
the Great Northern Railway are drawn from a bed that is at a 
depth of about 240 feet and affords water that is soft but rich in 
sodium. The data in regard to the village well are given above 
(pp. 389-390). Virtually the entire population depends on the public 
supply, which is furnished free of charge, about 12,000 gallons being 
consumed daily. The Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad Company 
uses water from the river. 

FARM WATER SUPPLIES. 

Most of the farms are now provided with drilled wells. Formerly 
there were many of the shallow bored type, but these have generally 
proved unsatisfactory and have been replaced to a large extent by 
deeper and more permanent drilled wells. The latter range from 
about 50 to 250 feet in depth, a majority being between 100 and 200 



YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY. 



393 



feet. Nearly all terminate in the drift and yield hard water, which 
incrusts the screens that are used. In localities where soft water 
can not be obtained it is advisable to drill wells so large in diameter 
that screens will not be required. 

SUMMARY AND ANALYSES. 

Throughout the county granite occurs within a few hundred feet 
of the surface. Except in rare instances, this rock will not furnish 
water, and no water-bearing formation lies below it. For this reason 
all supplies must be drawn from beds relatively near the surface, and 
deep drilling should not be undertaken. Some flowing wells can be 
obtained near the western end of the county, but they are generally 
less than 200 feet deep, and any deep drilling project for the purpose 
of obtaining artesian water is certain to end in failure. 

Where sandstone beds are found below layers of shale (" soapstone "), 
they will usually contribute soft water, but unfortunately in most 
localities these beds are wanting. Nevertheless prospecting for soft 
water is a reasonable undertaking in any region that has not yet been 
thoroughly explored. The cost of such an experiment is moderate 
because the depth to granite is never great, and if a soft-water bed 
exists at all it will be found before this rock is reached. At Hanley 
Falls a soft-water zone is known to be present, but at Canby, Clark- 
field, and Echo granite has been encountered without finding such a 
zone, and at Wood Lake drilling has apparently never been carried 
below the drift. 



Mineral analyses of water in Yelloiv Medicine County. 
[Analyses in parts per million.] 



Surface deposits (glacial drift, etc.). 



Cretaceous. 



Depth feet. . 

Diameter of well inches. . 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 

Iron (Fe) 

Aluminum ( Al) 

Iron and aluminum oxides ( Fe203+ AI2O3) . 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Total solids 



(o) 



27 
.1 
5.4 



53 

144 
29 
2.2 
4.3 



186 
6 and 4 
47 
.3 



117 
67 

46 

405' 
66 

173 
15 

729 



9.4 
385 
173 
66 



689 
382 
615 
35 
2,053 



357 
138 
57 

483' 

1,119 

10 

l,97l' 



2. 
171 
65 
165 

407' 
604 
51 
.0 
1,353 



247 

5 

1.2 



2.4 
23 
10 
251 



229 
137 
215 

759' 



148 

6 

11.4 



3.6 

10 
7.5 
248 

.0 
483 
136 
27 

.0 
697 



a Very shallow. 
This well has no connection with the city waterworks. 



Sep- 



1. Public street well at Granite Falls, 
tember 5, 1907. 

2. Well behind A. Matz's general store at Echo. August 29, 1907. 

3. Village well at Echo. August 29, 1907. 

4. Village well at Wood Lake. August 22, 1907. 

5. Village well at Hanley Falls. August 21, 1907. 

6. East village well at Dawson (Lac qui Parle County). August 29, 1907. 

The above analyses were made for the United States Geological Survey by H. A. Whittaker, chemist, 
Minnesota state board of health. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Page. 

Aberdeen, S Dak., water of, analysis of 72 

Acknowledgments to those aiding 26, 58, 73 

Adams, public water supplies at 98, 107, 273-274 

well at, water of, analysis of 275 

Adrian, public water supplies at 98, 107, 289 

well at 287 

water of, analysis of 290 

Aftou, well at, water of, analysis of 368 

Air lift, description of 120-121 

figure showing 120 

Albert Lea, drainage well near. . . 93 

public water supplies at 98, 107, 189 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 188 

water of, analyses of 189 

Alden, public water supplies at 98, 107, 189 

Algonkian system, occurrence and character 

of 31, 33, 48-49 

structure of, plates showing 156, 276 

water in 48-49 

See also Red clastic series; Sioux quartz- 
ite. 

Alluvium, occurrence and character of 41 

water in, analyses of 61-68 

quality of 61-68 

See also particular counties. 

Alpha, public water supplies at 98, 107, 215 

structure at, plates showing 34 

well at, water of, analysis of 216 

Amboy, public water supplies at 98, 107, 142 

well at, water of, analysis of 143 

Amiret, structure at, plate showing 244 

Analyses of water, plate showing 34 

See also particular counties, places, rocks, 
etc. 

Andover, S. Dak., water of, analysis of 72 

Anoka, geology at 130 

public water supplies at 98, 107 

wells at 130-131 

water of, analysis of 132 

A noka County, description of 128 

geology of 128-130 

public water supplies in 98, 131 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 130-132 

analyses of 62, 132 

plate showing 34 

wells in 130 

section of 130 

A ppleton, geology at 134 

public water supplies at 98,107,353 

wells at, water of, analyses of 355 



Page. 

Archean-Cretaceous contact, waters from 73-74 

waters from, analysis of 74 

Archean system, occurrence and character of. 31, 49 

structure of, plate showing 34, 

134, 144, 156, 222, 244, 320, 390 

water in 49 

wells in 82 

Artesian conditions, description of 50-57 

occurrence and character of 50, 53-57 

Artesian waters, prospects for 25, 50 

sources oL 50 

Atmospheric pressure, well phenomena due 

to 88-92 

Atwater, public water supplies at 98, 107, 220 

well at, water of, analysis of 66, 221 

Austin, public water supplies at 98, 107, 273 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 273 

record of 272 

water of, analyses of 275 

Avoca, public water supplies at 98, 107, 279 

structure at, plate showing 276 

well at, water of, analysis of 280 

B. 

Badger Lake, wells at 276 

Balaton, public water supplies at 98, 107,250 

Beardsley , public water supplies at 98, 107, 135 

Beaver Creek, wells on 276 

Belle Plaine, public water supplies at.. 98,107,340 

wells at 337,341 

record of 339 

water of, analyses of 341 

Bellingham, public water supplies at. . . 98, 107,226 

structure at, plate showing 222 

Benson, public water supplies at 98, 107, 353 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells near 351, 352-353 

water of, analyses of 355 

Bigelow, well at, water of, analysis of 290 

Bigstone County, description of 132 

geology of 132-135 

public water supplies in.. 98, 99, 100, 103, 135-136 

structure in, plates showing 34, 134 

water of 132-137 

analyses of 62, 69, 137-138 

plate showing 34 

Bigstone Lake, artesian water near 54 

Bingham Lake, wells at, water of, analyses of 162 

Bird Island, public water supplies at 98, 

107, 320-321 
structure at, plate showing 34, 320 

395 



396 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Bird Island, wells at 315 

wells at, water of, analyses of 324 

Biscay, wells near 253 

wells near, water of, analysis of 258 

Blooming Prairie, drainage well near 93 

public water supplies at 98, 107, 349 

wells at, water of, analyses of 349 

Blowing wells, description of 90-91 

Blue Earth, public water supplies in 98, 108 

structure in, plate showing 34 

wells at 17C. 178 

record of 175 

water of, analysis of 1"8 

Blue Earth County, description of 138 

geology of 138-1 41 

public water supplies in. 98, 101-103, 105, 141-142 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 141-142 

analyses of 62,143 

plate showing 34 

Blue Earth River valley, description of 27 

wells in 176 

Bored wells, description of 79 

Boyd, public water supplies at 99, 108,225-220 

structure at, plate showing 222 

wellat 223 

Breathing wells, description of 90-91 

Breckenridge, water of, analysis of 72 

Bricelin, public water supplies at 99, 108, 177 

Bristol, S. Dak., water of, analysis of 72 

Brown County, description of 143 

geology of 144-146 

public water supplies in 99, 102-105 

structure in, plates showing 34, 144, 370 

water of 144-148 

analyses of 62, 69, 148-149 

plate showing Pocket. 

Brownsville, structure at, plate showing . . Pocket. 

well at, record of 207 

Brownton, public water supplies in 256 

structure at, plate showing Pocket. 

wells at, water of, analyses of 257-258 

Brown Valley, geology at 134 

public water supplies at 99. 108, 133, 137 

structure at, plates showing 34. 134 

wells at. 134 

water of, analyses of 137-13S 

Buffalo, public water supplies at 3S4 

wells at, record of 382-3S3 

water of, analyses of 387 

Buffalo Creek, wells on 253 

Buffalo Lake, public water supplies at 99, 

10S. 322-323 

structure at, plate showing 34. 320 

wells at 315. 3S1 

water of, analysis of 324 

Butterfield, structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of 370, 371 

water of, analysis of 373 

C. 

Caledonia, public water supplies at. . 99, 108, 208-209 

wells at, record of 208 

waterof, analyses of 210 

Cambrian rocks, occurrence and character of. . 47-48 
See also particular formations. 



Page. 

Canby , public water supplies at 99, 108, 391 

structure at, plate showing 34,244 

well at 388, 390 

water of, analysis of 66 

Cannon Falls, public water supplies at. 99,108, 196 

wells at, record of. 196 

water of, analysis of 195 

Camion River, wells on 193 

wells on, water of, analyses of 197 

Canton, public water supplies at 184 

well at, water of, analysis of 185 

Carver, spring at, water of, analysis of 151 

well at 150 

Carver County, description of 149 

geology of 149 

public water supplies in 99 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 150 

analyses of 62, 151 

plate showing 34 

Center Creek, wells on 260 

Centerville, wells at 131 

Centerville Lake, wells at 130 

wells at, record of. 130 

Ceylon, public water supplies at 99, 108, 2ii4 

wells at 260 

Chandler, well at, water of, analysis of. 280 

Chanhassen, wells at, water of, analyses of 151 

Chaska, public water supplies at 99, 108 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of. 150 

Chatfleld, public water supplies at 99, 108, 183 

Chippewa County, description of 151 

geology of 152-153 

public water supplies in 103, 153-154 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 152-154 

analysis of 62, 154 

plate showing 34 

Chippewa River, wells along 152, 351 

Chlorine content, variation in 05-67, 78 

variation in, with depth 05 

with place 66-67 

Clapp, F. G., work of. 26 

Claremont, wells at, water of, analyses of 172 

Clarkfield, public water supplies at.. 99, 108,391-392 

structure at, plate showing 34, 390 

Clear Lake, water of, analysis of 363 

Cleveland, well at, water of, analysis of 232 

Clinton , geology at 135-130 

public water supplies at 99, 108, 136 

structure at, plate showing 134 

wells at, water of, analyses of 66. 137-138 

Clontarf, wells at 351 

Cokato, public water supplies at 99. 109, 3S5-3S0 

wells at and near 380, 3S1 

record of 3S5 

water of, analyses of 3S7 

Cologne, structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, water of, analyses of 151 

Columnar sections, plates showing 36, 202 

Comfrey, public water supplies at 99. 109, 147 

Correll, well near 133 

well near, water of. analysis of 137-138 

Corrosion, causes of. 60-61 

Coteau des Prairies, artesian water near 54 



INDEX. 



397 



Page. 

Coteau des Prairies, glaciation of 36-37 

location and character of 26-27 

Cottonwood, public water supplies at 99, 108 

structure at, plate showing 244 

wells near 247 

Cottonwood County, description of 155 

geology of 155-159 

public water supplies in 103, 105 

structure in, plates showing , ... 34,156 

water of 156-161 

analyses of 62, 68, 69, 162, 249-252 

plate showing 34 

Cottonwood River, structure at, plate show- 
ing 144 

Cretaceous rocks, artesian water in, descrip- 
tion of 54-55 

deposition of 35 

distribution of, map showing 34 

occurrence and character of 32, 42 

section of, figure showing 55 

structure of, plates showing 34, 

134, 144, 156, 222, 244, 370, 390 

water of 42, 77-78 

analyses of 68-69, 70-74, 76, 78 

plate showing 34 

hardness of 69 

quality of 68-74, 76-78 

types of 69-73 

relations of 71-73 

figures showing 55, 71 

wells in 81 

See also particular counties. 

Crow River, wells on 253, 266, 381 

Currie, public water supplies at 100,108,278-279 

well at 277 

record of 278 

water of, analyses of 280 

D. 

Dakota, well at, water of, analysis of 379 

Dakota County, description of 162-163 

geology of 163-166 

public water supplies in 101, 105, 167-168 

structure in , plate showing 34 

water of 164-168 

analyses of 62, 168-169 

plate showing 34 

Danvers, wells at 351 

Darwin, wells near 267 

Dassel, public water supplies at 100, 108, 269 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells near 266 

record of 269 

water of, analysis of 271 

Dawson, public water supplies at 100, 108, 225 

structure at, plate showing 222 

well at, water of, analysis of 393 

Decorah shale, occurrence and character of. . . 44 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water in 44 

De Graff, public water supplies at 100, 108 

Delano, public water supplies at 100, 109, 384 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 380 

record of 384 

water of, analysis of 387 



Page. 

Delavan, public water supplies at 100, 109, 178 

well at, water of, analysis of 178 

Depth, variation of water with 65 

Des Moines River, wells on 156, 212-213 

Devonian rocks, deposition of 34 

occurrence and character of 42-43 

water in 43 

analysis of 74 

Dexter, well at, water of, analysis of 275 

Dodge Center, structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of 171 

well at, water of, analysis of 172 

Dodge County, description of 169 

geology of 170-171 

public water supplies in. . . 101, 102, 105, 171-172 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 171-172 

analyses of. 62,172 

plate showing 34 

Drainage, description of 29-30 

relation of, to upland 30-31 

Drainage by wells, description of 92-94 

Dresbach sandstone, occurrence and char- 
acter of 47 

structure of, plate showing 34, 370, 384 

water in 47-48 

analyses of 74 

See also particular counties. 
Drift, glacial, artesian water in, conditions for. 50-53 

artesian water in, prospects for 53-54 

deposition of 36-37, 38 

occurrence and character of 28, 30-39 

structure of, plates showing 34, 134, 144, 

156, 222, 244, 276, 320, 370, 390 

water in 50-54, 77 

analyses of 61-68 

quality of 61-68, 77 

wells in 39-40, 78-80 

See also Wells; particular counties. 

Drilled wells, description of 79-80 

drilling of 80, 87-88, 95-96 

figures showing 87, 88 

record of 95-96 

Drill holes, deflection of 88 

deflection of, figure showing 88 

Dudley, structure at, plate showing 244 

wells near 247, 251 

Dug wells, description of 79 

Dumont, geology at 134 

structure at, plate showing 134 

wells at 134 

water of, analysis of 137-138 

Dundee, structure at, plate showing 34 

Dune sand, occurrence and character of 41 

See also particular counties. 

E. 

Eagle Lake, structure at, plate showing 34 

Easton, public water supplies at.. . 100, 109, 177-178 

Echo, public water supplies at 100, 109, 392 

structure at, plate showing 390 

wells at, water of, analyses of 393 

Eden Valley, public water supplies at . . 100, 109, 269 

wells near 266, 268 

record of 268 

water of, analyses of 271 



398 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Edgerton, public water supplies at 100,109,298 

wells near 295 

water of, analysis of 300 

Elgin, public water supplies at 100, 109, 359 

Elk River, structure at, plate showing 384 

wells at.- 383 

water of, analysis of 387 

Ellendale, public water supplies at 100, 109, 349 

Ellsworth, public water supplies at 100, 109, 289 

well at, record of 287 

Elm Creek, wells on'. 260 

Elmore, public water supplies at 100, 109, 177 

well at, water of, analysis of 178 

Elysian, public water supplies at 100, 109, 231 

Emmons, public water supplies at 100, 109, 189 

Erosion, features of 28-30 

Excelsior, public water supplies at 100, 109 

Eyota, public water supplies at 100, 109, 293 

well at, water of, analysis of 294 

F. 

Fairfax, public water supplies at 100, 109, 321 

wells at 315, 319 

record of 317 

Fairmont, public water supplies at 100, 109, 263 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 260 

record of 263 

water of, analyses of 265 

Faribault, public water supplies at . 100, 109, 327-328 

well at, record of 328 

water of, analyses of 329 

Faribault County, description of 173 

geology of 173-174 

public water supplies in 98-100, 

102, 103, 105, 176-178 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 174-178 

analyses of ■ 62, 178 

plate showing 34 

Farmington, structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, water of, analyses of 168-169 

Fillmore County, description of 179 

geology of 179-180 

public water supplies in 99, 101-106, 182-184 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 181-185 

analyses of 62, 185 

plate showing 34 

Fire protection, imperfection in 122-123 

Flowing wells, yield of, variations in 89 

See also Artesian wells; particular coun- 
ties. 

Foaming, causes of 60 

Forest City, wells near 266 

Forest Lake, spring at, water of, analysis of . . . 368 

Fort Snelling, public water supplies at 100, 109 

Fountain, public water supplies at 101, 109, 184 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, record of 184 

water of, analyses of 185 

Fox Lake, well at, water of, analysis of 265 

.Franklin, public water supplies at 101, 109, 322 

wells at 315 

records of 318, 319 

Freeborn, structure at, plate showing 34 



Page. 

Freeborn County, description of 186 

geology of 186-187 

public water supplies in 98,100,101,189 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 188-189 

analyses of 62, 189 

plate showing Pocket. 

Freezing of wells, cause of 91-92 

Fulda, public water supplies at 101, 109,278 

structure at, plate showing 276 

wells at and near 278 

water of, analyses of 280 

Fuller, M. L., work of 20, 61, 74 

Fuller, M. L., and Hall, C. W., county descrip- 
tions by 128-132, 138-143, 149-151, 

169-210, 227-232, 271-275, 281-2815, 290- 
294,324-329,336-349, 355-368, 374-379 
Fuller, M. L., and Meinzer, O. E., on well 

problems 78-96 

G. 

Galena limestone, occurrence and character of 43 

structure of , plate showing 34 

water in 43-44 

analysis of 74 

See also particular counties. 

Geneva, pumping near 94 

wells near 188 

Geologic history, outline of 31-37 

Geologic sections, plates showing 34 

Geology, discussion of 37-49 

Ghent, well near 247, 251 

Gibbon, public water supplies at 101,109,345 

Glacial drift. Sec Drift, glacial. 

Glacial map of southern Minnesota Pocket. 

Glaciation, history of 36-37 

Glencoe, public water supplies at 101,109,256 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 254-255, 268 

record of 254 

water of, analyses of 257-258 

G lenville, wells near 188 

Goodhue, public water supplies at 101, 109, 196 

Goodhue County, description of 190 

geology of 190-193 

public water supplies in. 99, 101-103, 106, 194-196 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 193-196 

analyses of '. 62,196-197 

plate showing 34 

Good Thunder, public water supplies at 101, 

109, 142 

Graceville, geology at 134 

public water supplies at 101, 109. 135, 137 

structure at, plate showing 34, 134 

well at 134 

water of, analyses of 137-138 

Granada, wells at 260 

wells at, water of, analysis of 265 

Grand Meadow, public water supplies at 101, 

109,274 
Granite Falls, public water supplies at . 101 , 109, 391 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, water of, analysis of 393 

Granitic rock, distribution of, map showing. 

Pocket. 



INDEX. 



399 



Green Isle, well at 345 

well at, record of 344 

Grove City, public water supplies at 101, 

109,269-270 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, water of, analysis of 271 

H. 

Hall,C. W., cited 316 

county descriptions by 300-304 

on geologic formations and their water- 
bearing capacity 37-49 

on pre-Paleozoic rocks 33 

work of - 26. 58 

Hall, C.W., and Fuller, M. L., county descrip- 
tions by 128-132, 138-143, 149-151, 

169-210, 227-232, 271-275, 281-283, 290- 
294, 324-329, 336-349, 355-368, 374-379 
Hall, C. W., and Meinzer, O. E., on physiog- 
raphy of region 26-31 

Hamburg, well at, record of 150 

Hanley Falls, public water supplies at. . 101, 109, 392 

structure at, plate showing 390 

well at 390 

water of, analysis of 393 

Hanska, structure at, plate showing 370 

well at 145 

Hardness, causes and measurement of 59 

Hardwick, public water supplies at 101, 109, 334 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at and near 331, 332 

water of, analyses of 336 

Harmony, public water supplies at 101,110,183 

Hartland, public water supplies at 101,110,189 

Hastings, public water supplies at 101, 110, 167 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 167 

record of 166-167 

water of, analyses of 168-169 

Hatfield, well at, water of, analysis of 300 

Hayfield, public water supplies at 101, 110, 171 

well at, record of 170 

water of, analysis of 172 

Head, fluctuations in 88-89 

Hector, public water supplies at 101, 110, 321 

structure at, plate showing 34, 320 

well at 315 

water of, analyses of 324 

Henderson, public water supplies at. . . 101, 110, 345 

well at 345 

record of 344 

Hendricks, public water supplies at . . . 101, 110,238 

well at, water of, analysis of 239 

Hennepin County, description of 198 

geology of 198-201 

public water supplies in . . . 100, 103, 105, 203-204 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 201-204 

analyses of 62 

plate showing 34 

Heron Lake, public water supplies at 215 

structure at, plate showing 156 

wells at, water of, analysis of 216 

Hokah, pumping at 94 

public water supplies at 101, 110, 209 

springs at 208 



Page. 

Hokah, wells at, water of, analyses of 210 

Houston, public water supplies at 101, 110,209 

wells at, water of, analyses of ■.. 210 

Houston County, description of 204 

geology of ". 204-207 

public water supplies in 99, 101, 105,208-209 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 207-209 

analysis of 62, 210 

plate showing 34 

chlorine in 208 

Howard Lake, public water supplies at. 101, 110, 385 

wells at 380, 383 

Huntley, wells at, water of, analyses of 178 

Hutchinson, public water supplies at 101, 

110,255-256 

wells at 253 

water of, analyses of 257-258 

Hydraulic process drilling, figure showing... 80 
Hydraulic rams, use of 94 

I. 

Inver Grove, well at, water of, analysis of . . 168-169 
Investigation, history of 26 

purpose and scope of.'. .r. . 23-26 

Iona, public water supplies at 101,110,279 

wells at, water of, analyses of 280 

Iron content, variation in 78 

variation in, with depth 67-68 

Itasca, spring at, water of, analysis of 132 

Ivanhoe, public water supplies at 101 , 110, 238 

wells at 235-236 

record of 235 

J. 

lack Creek, wells near 285 

Jackson, public water supplies at 101, 110,214 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at and near, record of 211 

water of, analysis of 216 

Jackson County, description of 210 

geology of 211-214 

public water supplies in 98, 101, 102, 211. 

structure in, plates showing 34, 156 

water of 76,211-216 

analyses of 62, 68, 75,216 

plate showing 34 

James River valley, artesian water in 54-55 

Janesville, structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, water of, analysis of 363 

Jasper, public water supplies at 102, 110, 298 

well at, water of, analysis of 300 

JefTers, wells near .- : . 158 

Jetting process, drilling by, figure showing... 80 

Johnson, geology near 134 

structure at, plate showing 134 

Johnston, A. W., aid of 26 

Jordan, public water supplies in 340 

well at, record of - 340 

water of, analysis of 341 

Jordan sandstone, occurrence and character 

of 47 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water in 47 

analysis of 74 

See also particular counties. 



400 



INDEX. 



K. Page. 

Kandiyohi County, description of 217 

geology of 217-219 

public water supplies in. . . . 98, 103, 105, 219-220 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 218-221 

analyses of 62, 221 

plate showing 34 

Kasota, well at, water of, analysis of 232 

Kasson, public water supplies at 102, 110, 171 

well at, water of, analysis of 172 

Keewatin series, occurrence and character of. 49 

Kenyon, public water supplies at 102, 110, 19G 

well at, water of, analysis of 197 

Kiester, public water supplies at 102, 110, 178 

Kilkenny, public water supplies at 102, 110, 231 

Koniska, wells near 253 

L. 

Lac qui Parle County, description of 221 

geology of 222-224 

public water supplies in 98-100, 225-227 

structure in, plate showing 34, 222 

water of 222-227 

analysis of 69, 224 

plate showing 34 

Lake Benton, public water supplies at 102, 

110,237-238 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells near 235, 236 

water of, analyses of 239 

Lake City, public water supplies at 102, 110, 359 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of 358 

water of, analyses of 360 

Lake Crystal, public water supplies at. 102, 110, 142 

well at, record of 141 

Lakefield, public water supplies at. 102, 110, 214-215 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, record of 214 

water of, analyses of 216 

Lake Marion, wells on 253 

Lake Minnetonka, structure at, plate show- 
ing. 34 

Lake Park, wells at. 213 

Lake Phalen, well near 301 

Lake Vadnais, well at 301 

well at, record of 304 

Lake Wilson, wells on 276 

wells on, water of, analyses of 280 

Lamberton, public water supplies at 102, 

110,311-312 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at. . . , 157 

record of 311 

Lanesboro, public water supplies at 102, 

110,182-183 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, water of, analyses of 185 

Le Roy, public water supplies at 102, 110,274 

well at, water of, analyses of 275 

Lester Prairie, public water supplies at. . 102, 

110,256 

wells at 253 

water of, analyses of- 257-258 

Lesueur, public water supplies at. . 102, 111, 230-231 



Page. 

Lesueur, well at 230-231 

well at, record of 230 

water of, analyses of 232 

Lesueur Center, public water supplies at 102, 

111,23! 

well at 230 

Lesueur County, description of 227 

geology of 228-229 

public water supplies in * . . . 100, 

102,103,105,220-231 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 228-231 

analyses of 62, 232 

plate showing 34 

Lewiston, public water supplies at 102,111,378 

structure at, plate showing 34 

Lime Creek, structure at, plate showing 276 

wells on 276 

Limestone, solution passages in 46 

See also particular formations. 

Lincoln County, description of 232 

geology of 233-237 

public water supplies in. . . 101, 102, 105, 237-238 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 236-239 

analysis of 62, 239 

plate showing 34 

Litchfield, public watersupplies at. 102, 111, 268-269 

structure at, plate showing .' 34 

wells near 266 

water of, analyses of 66, 271 

Little Cottonwood River, structure at, plate 

showing 144 

Location of area, description of 23 

map showing 24 

Loess, occurrence and character of 41 

Lonsdale, public water supplies at 102,111,329 

wells at, water of, analyses of 329 

Loon Lake, water of, analysis of 363 

Luverne, public water supplies at 102, 111 , 334 

well at, water of, analysis of • 336 

Lyle, public watersupplies at 102,111,274 

Lynd, wells near 251 

Lyon County, description of 240 

geology of 240-248 

public water supplies in 98, 103, 105, 248-250 

structure in, plate showing 34, 244 

water of 71-72, 241-250 

analyses of 62, 68-69, 74, 251-252 

plate showing 34 

M. 

Mabel, public water supplies at 102, 1 1 1 , 184 

wells at, water of, analyses of 185 

McLeod County, description of 252 

geology of 252-255 

public water supplies in 99, 

101,102,104,105,225-227 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of , 252-257 

analyses of 82, 257-258 

plate showing 34 

Madelia, public watersupplies at 102,111,372 

structure at, plate showing 34, 370 

wells at and near 369, 371 

water of, analyses of 373 



INDEX. 



401 



Page. 

Madison, structure at, plate showing 222 

well at and near 223, 225 

Mankato, public water supplies at. 103,111,141-142 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 140, 142 

record of 141 

water of, analyses of 143 

Map of southern Minnesota Pocket. 

Maple River, wells on 176 

Mapleton, public water supplies at 103, 111, 142 

well at, water of, analysis of 143 

Maquoketa shale, occurrence and character of. 43 

water in 43 

Marshall, artesian wells at 55, 72 

public water supplies at 103, 111 , 248-249 

structure at, plate showing 244 

wells at and near 234, 245-246 

water of, analyses of 251-252 

Martin County, description of 258-259 

geology of 259-262 

public water supplies in. 99, 100, 104, 105, 263-264 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 259-265 

analysis of 62,265 

plate showing 34 

Maynard, public water supplies at 103,111,154 

Mazeppa, public water supplies at 103,111,359 

Meeker County, description of 266 

geology of 266-268 

public water supplies in 100-102, 268-270 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 266-270 

analysesof 62, 271 

plate showing . 34 

Meinzer, O. E., county descriptions by... 132-138, 
143-148, 151-162, 210-227, 232-271, 
275-280, 283-290, 294-300, 304-324, 
330-336, 350-355, 368-373, 379-393. 

on artesian conditions 50-57 

on geologic history 31-37 

on mineral quality of underground water. 57-78 

work of 26 

Meinzer, O. E., and Fuller, M. L., on well 

problems 78-96 

Meinzer, O. E., and Hall, C. W., on physio- 
graphy of region 26-31 

Mendota, wells at ■ 168 

wells at, record of : 166 

water of, analyses of 168-169 

Merriam Junction, public water supplies at. . 341 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of 341 

water of, analyses of 341 

Milan, public water supplies at 103,111,153-154 

wells in 152 

water of, analysis of 154 

Milbank, S. Dak., structure "at, plate show- 
ing 222 

Milroy, wells near 251, 308 

Mineral waters, character of 25, 57-58 

See also Underground waters. 

Minneapolis, public water supplies at 103, 

111,203-204 

structure at, plates showing 34, 202 

waters of, analyses of, plate giving 202 

60920°— wsp 256—11 26 



Page. 

Minneiska, public water supplies at 103, 111 

Minneopa Falls, structure at, plate show- 
ing 34 

well at, record of 141 

Minneota, public water supplies at 103,111,249 

structure at, plate showing 244 

wells near 241,245,247 

water of, anatyses of 251-252 

Minnesota City, spring near, water of, 

analyses of 379 

Minnesota Lake, public water supplies 

at 103, 111, 178 

Minnesota Valley, description of 27, 28, 29 

wells in 283, 340, 388 

Mississippi River, water of, analyses of, plate 

showing 202 

Montevideo, public water supplies at. . 103,111,153 

wells at 153 

water of, analyses of 154 

Montgomery , public water supplies at. 103, 111, 231 

structure at, plate showing ■ 34 

wells at, record of 231 

water of, analyses of 232 

Monticello, public water supplies at 103, 

111,384-385 

wells at 383 

water of, analyses of 387 

Moraine, occurrence and character of 28 

Morton, public water supplies at 103,111,322 

wells at, records of 318 

water of, analyses of 324 

Mountain Lake, public water supplies at 103, 

111,159-160 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells near 158-160 

water of, analyses of 66, 162 

Mower County, description of 271 

geology of e . 271-273 

public water supplies in. 98, 101, 102,104, 273-274 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 272-274 

analyses of 62, 275 

plate showing 34 

Municipal supplies, investigation of. . 25 

See also Public water supplies. 

Murdock, wells at 351 

Murray County, description of 275 

geology of 275-278 

public water supplies in. 98, 100, 101, 104, 278^-279 

structure in, plates showing 34, 276 

water of 276-280 

analyses of 62, 280 

plate showing 34 

N. 

New London, public water supplies at.. 103, 111, 220 
New Prague, public water supplies at. . 103, 111,340 

well at, water of, analysis of 232 

New Richland, public water supplies at. 103,111,362 
New Richmond sandstone, occurrence and 

character of 45-46 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water in 46 

analysis of 74 

See also particular counties. 



402 



INDEX. 



Page. 

New Ulm, geology at 145, 146 

public water supplies at 103, 111, 146-147 

structure at, plate showing 34, 144 

wells at 144, 145 

water of, analyses of 148 

Nicollet,, public water supplies at 103, 111, 283 

Nicollet County, description of 280 

geology of • 280-283 

public water supplies in 103, 104, 283 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 283 

analyses of 62,283 

plate showing 34 

Nobles County, description of 283-284 

geology of 284-285 

public water supplies in. 98, 100, 105, 106, 285-289 

structure in, plates showing 34, 276 

water of 53, 55, 284-290 

analyses of. 62,290 

plate showing 34 

North-central province, counties in 64 

waters in 64 

analyses of 64, 76 

chlorine in 66-67, 76 

Northfield, public water supplies at. . . 103, 111, 328 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of 328 

water of, analyses of 328, 329 

North St. Paul, public water supplies at.. . 103, 111 

O. 

Odin, wells at, water of, analyses of 373 

Okabena, structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, water of, analysis of 216 

Olivia, public water supplies at 103, 111, 320 

structure at, plate showing 34, 320 

well at 315 

water of, analyses of 66, 324 

Olmsted County, description of 290-291 

geology of 291-293 

public water supplies in . . . 100, 104, 105, 293-295 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 293-294 

analyses of 62, 294 

plate showing 34 

Oneota dolomite, occurrence and character of. 46 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water in ^ 46-47 

analysis of 74 

See also particular counties. 
Ordovician rocks, occurrence and character 

of 43-47 

See also particular formations. 

Ortonville, geology at 134 

public water supplies at . . . 103, 111, 133, 135, 137 

well at, water of, analyses of 137-138 

Oshawa, structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of 282 

Otter Lake, wells near : 235 

Outwash deposits, occurrence and character of 40 

O watonna, public water supplies at 103, 

111,348-349 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, record of 348 

water of, analyses of 349 



P. 

Paleozoic rocks, artesian water in 56 

deposition of 33-34 

occurrence and character of 42-48 

water of 74-75. 77-78 

analyses of 74, 76, 78 

wells in si 

See also particular systems. 

Perch Creek, wells on 260 

Physiography, description of 26-31 

Pine Island, public water supplies at. . 103, 111, 190 

Pipestone, public water supplies at 103, 

111,297-298 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells near 295, 290 

water of, analyses of 300 

Pipestone County, description of 294 

geology of 295-297 

public water supplies in . . . 100, 102-104, 297-299 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 295-300 

analyses of 62, 75, 301 

plate showing 34 

Plainview, public water supplies at... 103,111,359 

well at, record of 359 

water of, analysis of 360 

Platteville limestone, occurrence and charac- 
ter of 44 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water in 44 

See also particular counties. 
Pleistocene series. See Surface deposits. 

Pollution, investigation into 25 

Population of area, statistics of 23 

Post-Cretaceous erosion, history of 36-37 

Post-Devonian erosion, history of 34 

Prairie du Chien group, occurrence and char- 
acter of 45-46 

water in 45-47 

See also particular formations, counties, etc. 
Prairie Junction, well at, water of, analysis of. 216 

Pre-Cretaceous erosion, history of 34-35 

Pre-Paleozoic rocks, deposition of 32-33 

section of, figure showing 32 

Pressure, atmospheric, well phenomena due to 88-92 

Preston, public water supplies at 103,111,183 

wells at, water of, analyses of 185 

Prior Lake, structure at, plate showing 34 

Prospecting for water, advice on 95-90 

Public water supplies, cost of 117 

investigation of 25 

pressure for 121-122 

statistics of 97, 115 

storage of 122-123 

pollution of 123 

supply of, sources of 116-120 

statistics of 119 

systems used in 120-123 

uses of 114-115 

water of, charge for 124-120 

consumption of 123-124 

Pumping, methods of, used in public sup- 
plies 120,121 

power for 121 

types of, figures showing 79 



INDEX. 



403 



Q. Page. 

Quartzite. See Sioux quartzite. 
R. 

Rams, hydraulic, use of 94 

Ramsay, well at, water of, analysis of 275 

Ramsey County, description of 300-301 

geology of 301 -303 

public water supplies in 103-105,304 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 303-304 

analyses of .' 62 

plate showing 34 

Red clastic series, occurrence and character of. 33, 48 

structure of, plate showing 370,384, Pocket. 

water in 48 

Red Wing, public water supplies at 103, 

111,194-195 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 194-195,358 

record of 195 

water of, analyses of 195,197 

Redwood County, description of 304 

geology of 305-311 

public water supplies in 102, 104, 105, 311 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 305-313 

analyses of 02,69,306,313 

plate showing 34 

Redwood Falls, public water supplies at 104, 

112,311 

wells at, water of, analyses of 306, 313 

Renville, public water supplies at. . 104, 112, 319-320 

structure at, plate showing 34, 320 

wells at 314, 315 

water of, analyses of 66, 324 

Renville County, description of 314 

geology of 314, 319 

public water supplies in 98-101, 

103,104,319-323 

structure in, plate showing 34, 320 

water of 315-323 

analyses of 62, 324 

plate showing 34 

Revere, wells at 157 

wells at, water of, analysis of 313 

Rice County, description of 324-325 

geology of . 325-327 

public water supplies in.. 100,102,103,327-329 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of , 327-329 

analyses of 62, 328, 329 

plate showing 34 

River Junction, well at, water of, analysis of . 210 
Rochester, public water supplies at... 104,112,293 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 293 

record of 293 

water of, analyses of 294 

Rock County, description of 330 

geology of 330-334 

public water supplies in 101, 102, 334 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 75, 330-335 

analyses of 62, 75, 336 

plate showing 34 ' 



Page. 

Rolling Stone, public water supplies at 104, 

112,378 
Root River, wells on 181,207 

wells on, water of, analyses of 185 

Rose Creek, public water supplies at.. 104,112,274 
Rushford, public water supplies at 104. 112, 183 

well at, water of, analysis of 185 

Russell, well near, record of 234 

Ruthton, public water supplies at. 104, 112,298-299 

well at, record of 299 

S. 

Sacred Heart, public water supplies at. 104, 112, 322 
St. Charles, public water supplies at. 104,112,378 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, water of, analyses of 379 

St. Francis, well at 131 

St. James, public water supplies at. 104, 112, 371-372 

structure at, plate showing 34, 370 

wells at 369, 370, 371 

water of, analyses of 373 

St. Lawrence formation, occurrence and char- 
acter of 47 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water in 47 

analysis of 74 

See also particular counties. 

St. Paul, public water supplies at 104, 112, 304 

structure at, plate showing 34, 304 

water at, analyses of, plate showing 304 

wells at 303 

records of, plate showing 304 

St. Peter, public water supplies at 104, 112, 283 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, record of. 282 

St. Peter sandstone, occurrence and character 

of. 44-45 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water in 44-45 

analysis of. 74 

See also particular counties. 

Sanborn, public water supplies at 312 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 157 

record of. 280, 312 

Sand, wells in, finishing of 82-87 

See also Dune sand. 

Sanitation, need for 126-128 

See Underground water; wells. 

Savage, wells at, water of, analyses of 341 

Scale, formation of 59 

Scope of work, statement of 23-26 

Scott County, description of 336-337 

geology of 337-339 

public water supplies in 98, 103, 340-341 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 339, 341 

analyses of 62, 341 

plate showing 34 

Screens, use of. 82-86 

See also Well screens. 

Sections, geologic, plate showing 34 

Sediments, character of 35 

Shakopee, public water supplies at 340 



404 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Shakopee, well at, water of, analysis of 341 

Shakopee Creek, wells on 351 

Shakopee dolomite, occurrence and character 

of 45 

structure of , plate showing 34 

water in 45 

analysis of 74 

See also particular counties. 

Shepard, J. II.,workof. 73 

Sherburn, public water supplies in. 104, 112, 263-2C4 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 260 

record of. 263 

water of, analyses of 265 

Sibley, Iowa, well at, record of. 2S6 

Sibley County, description of 341-342 

geology of 342-344 

public water supplies in 101, 106, 345 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 345-346 

Silver Lake, public water supplies at. . 104, 112, 257 

Sioux quartzite, artesian water in 57 

deposition of 32 

distribution of, map showing Pocket. 

drill holes in , deflection of, figure showing. 88 

drilling in 87-88 

occurrence and character of 31, 49 

section of, figure showing 57 

structure of, plate showing 34 

water of 49, 75-78 

analyses of 75, 76, 78 

wells in 81 

See also particular counties. 

Slayton, public water supplies at 104, 112, 278 

structure at, plates showing 34, 276 

well at, water of, analysis of 280 

Sleepy Eye, geology near 145, 146 

public water supplies at 104, 112, 147 

structure at, plates showing 34, 144 

wells at, water of, analyses of- - , 14S 

Soap-consuming power, significance of 59 

South Dakota, Cretaceous waters in, analyses 

of 72-73 

Southeastern province, counties in 63 

waters of 63-64 

analyses of 63, 76 

South St. Paul, public water supplies at 105, 

112, 167-168 

wells at 167 

record of 166 

water of, analyses of 168-169 

South Stillwater, public water supplies at. 105,112 

Southwestern province, counties in 64 

waters of 64 

analyses of 64, 76 

chlorine in 66-67,70 

Spaulding, H. G., work of 26 

Spring Branch Creek, wells on 369 

Springfield, public water supplies at.. 105,112,147 

wells at 144 

Spring Grove, public water supplies at. 105, 112, 209 

well at, water of, analysis of 210 

Spring Valley, public water supplies at. 105, 112, 183 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, water of, analyses of 185 

Steele County, description of 346 



Page. 

Steele County, geology of '. 346-348 

public water supplies in 98, 100, 103,348-349 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of „ 348 

analyses of 62,349 

plate showing 34 

Stella Lake, wells near 266 

Sterling Center, pumping at 94 

Stewart, public water supplies at 105, 112, 250 

structure at, plate showing 34 

well at, water of, analysis of 258 

Stewartville, public water supplies at. . 105, 112, 293 

Stillwater, public water supplies at 105, 112,367 

well at 306 

record of 366 

Stockton, spring at, water of, analysis of 379 

wells at, water of, analyses of 379 

Straight River, pumping near 94 

Surface deposits, definition of 37 

description of 38-41 

distribution of, map showing — Pocket. 

structure of, plates showing 34,' 134, 144, 156, 

222, 244, 276, 320, 370, 384, 390 

water in, analyses of 61-78 

analyses of , plate showing 34 

chlorine in 65-67,76,78 

variation of, with depth 65-66 

with place 66-67 

analyses showing 66, 76 

iron and nitrogen in 67-68, 78 

variation of, with depth 67 

quality of 61-68, 76-78 

variation of, with depth 65, 78 

with depth, analyses show- 
ing 61,63-64 

with place 61-64 

analyses showing 62-64,76 

wells in, finishing of 82-87 

types of 78-80 

See also particular counties. 

Surface waters, use of 117 

Swamp areas, reclamation of 93-94 

Swan Lake, wells near 266 

Swift County, description of 350 

geology of 350-353 

public water supplies in 98, 100, 353 

structure in , plate, showin 34 

water of 350-354 

analyses of 62, 355 

plate showing 34 

Swift Falls, wells near 351 

T. 
Tenmile Creek, structure at, plate showing. . . 222 
Terrace deposits, occurrence and character of. 40-41 
Tertiary stream deposits. See Surface de- 
posits. 

Till, description of 38 

See also Drift, glacial. 

Topography, description of 26-30 

map showing Pocket. 

Tourtellot, E. B., work of 26 

Tracy, public water supplies at 105, 112, 249 

structure at, plates showing 34, 244 

wells at and near 241, 246, 247, 251, 307 

water of, analyses of 251-252 



INDEX. 



405 



Page. 
Traverse County, public water supplies in. . . 99 

Triumph, wells at " 260 

Truman, public water supplies at 105,112,264 

Tubular wells, description of 79-81 

figures showing 79, 80 

Tyler, public water supplies at 105, 112, 238 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 234-235, 236 

record of. 235 

water of, analysis of 239 

Tyson's cave, stream in 46 

IT. 

Unconformity, occurrence of. 34 

Underground water, chlorine in, variation of. 65-67 

conditions of, map showing 34 

investigation of 23-26 

iron in 6~-68 

mineral analyses of 61-68 

interpretation of. 58-61 

sources of. ... '. 57-58 

mineral quality of-. 57-78 

variation in, with depth 65 

with depth, analyses showing. 61, 63-64 

with place 61-64 

analyses showing 62-64 

with rocks 61-78 

analyses showing 61 

pollution of 25, 117-119, 126-128 

prospecting for 95-96 

quality of, essentials in 116-117 

plate showing 34 

sources of, used for water supplies 119 

See also Artesian waters. 

Upham, W. , cited 33, 221-222, 233, 316 

Upland, drainage of 30-31 

Utica, public water supplies at 378 

V. 

Vasa, well at, water of, analysis of 197 

Vernon Center, public water supplies at 105, 

113,142 
Vesta, wells at, water of, analyses of 313 

W. 

Wabasha, structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 359 

record of 359 

water of, analyses of 360 

Wabasha County, description of. 355 

geology of 356-358 

public water supplies in 100, 102-103, 359 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 358-359 

analyses of 62,360 

plate showing 34 

Wabasso, well at, water of, analysis of. 313 

Wahpeton, water of, analysis of 72 

Walnut Grove, public water supplies at 105, 

113,312 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 157,247,307,308 

water of, analyses of 251-252, 306, 313 

Waseca, public water supplies at 105, 112, 362 

structure at, plate showing 34 



Page. 

Waseca, wells at, record of 361 

wells at, water of, analyses of 363 

Waseca County, description of 360 

geology of 360-361 

public water supplies in 103, 105, 362 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 362 

analyses of 62, 363 

plate showing 34 

Washington County, description of 363 

geology of 364-366 

public water supplies in 105, 106,367 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 366-367 

analyses of 62, 368 

plate showing 34 

Water, character of 25 

consumption of 123-124 

sources of 24-25 

See also Underground waters; Artesian 
waters; Municipal supplies. 
Waterville, public water supplies at . . . 105, 1 13, 231 

well at, water of, analysis of 232 

Waterworks. See Public water supplies. 

Watonwan County, description of 368 

geology of 368-371 

public water supplies in 102 104, 371-372 

structure in, plate showing 34,370 

water of 76, 369-373 

analyses of 62, 68, 75,373 

plate showing 34 

Watson, wells near 152 

Waverly , public water supplies at 105, 113, 386 

wells at 380,383 

record of 386 

water of, analyses of 357 

Weaver, wells at, water of, analyses of 360 

Webster, S. Dak., water of, analysis of 72 

Welcome, public water supplies at 105, 113, 264 

wells at 260 

water of, analyses of 265 

Wells, Minn. , public water supplies at 105, 

113,176-177 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at and near 176-177 

record of 175 

water of, analyses of 178 

Wells, atmospheric phenomena in 88-92 

casing for, position of 86 

construction of 25-26 

drainage by 92-94 

finishing of 82-87 

freezing of, cause of 91-92 

head in, variations in 88-89 

pollution of 126-128 

problems relating to 78-96 

pumps for 87 

figures showing 79 

screens for, development of natural 86-87 

incrustation on 82-85 

analysis of 84 

remedies for 85-86 

use Of 82-87 

size of 85,87 

types of 78-82 

water of, roiliness of 89-90 



406 



INDEX. 



Pago. 

Wells, yield of, variations in 89 

See also Blowing wells; Breathing wells. 
Wells, flowing. See Artesian wells; particular 

counties. 
Westbrook, public water supplies at. . . 105, 113, 160 

wells at 156-158, 160, 288 

record of 160 

water of, analyses of 162 

West Concord, public water supplies at. 105, 113, 171 
West Minneapolis, public water supplies at . 105, 113 
White Bear Lake, public water supplies at. 105,113 

White clay, analyses of 310 

occurrence and character of 309-311 

Whittaker, H. A., aid of 26, 58, 73 

Wilder, structure at, plate showing 156 

Willmar, public water supplies at. 105, 113, 219-220 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at 217-218 

record of 217 

water of, analyses of 221 

Wilmont, public water supplies at. . . . 105, 113, 289 

structure at, plate showing 34, 276 

wells near 285, 287 

water of, analyses of 290 

Winchell, N. H., cited 33,309 

Windom, public water supplies at 105, 113, 159 

structure at, plates showing 34, 156 

wells at and near 156, 159, 212 

water of, analyses of 162, 216 

Winnebago, public water supplies at. . 105, 113, 177 

wells at, water of, analyses of 178 

Winona, public water supplies at. . 105, 113,377-378 

structure at, plate showing 34 

wells at, records of 358, 376 

water of, analyses of 378, 379 

Winona County, description of 374 

geology of 374-376 

public water supplies in. . . 102, 104, 105, 377-378 
structure in, plate showing 34 



Page. 

Winona County, water of 377-379 

water of, analyses of 62, 379 

analyses of, plate showing 34 

Winsted, public water supplies at 105, 113, 257 

Winthrop, public water supplies at 106, 113,345 

well at 345 

record of 344 

Wood Lake, public water supplies at. . 106, 113, 392 

structure at, plate showing : 390 

well at , 388 

water of, analysis of 393 

Worthington, public water supplies at. 100, 113,288 

wells at and near 285, 287 

record of 288 

water of, analyses of 290 

Wright County, description of 380 

geology of 380-384 

public water supplies in 99, 101, 

103, 105, 384-386 

structure in, plate showing 34 

water of 381-387 

analyses of 62, 387 

plate showing 34 

Wykofi, public water supplies at. . 106, 113, 183-184 

Y. • 

Yellow Medicine County, description of 387-388 

geology of 388-390 

public water supplies in. 99, 100, 101, 106, 391-392 

structure in, plate showing 34, 244, 390 

water of 388-393 

analyses of 62, 69, 393 

plate showing 34 

Yellow Medicine River, wells on 236 

Z. 

Zumbrota, public water supplies at 106, 113, 196 

well at, water of, analysis of 197 



o 



J 



LBul 



Ui. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GK/SGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 




LBul 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE 



M^VF> O F 

SOUTHERN MINNESOTA 

SHOWING THICKNESS AND CHARACTER 

OF 

SURFACE DEPOSITS 




LEGEND 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE III 



LEGEND 




U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 256 PLATE IV 



'*9W R.4-8 



LEGEND 




■J r. 



